Topic 8 multiracial society

INTRODUCTION A multiracial society refers to a society that consists of various groups of races or ethnicities but under one leadership. According to J.S. Furnival, a multiracial society refers to a mixed society of various races. However, the mix in this sense means interaction but not merging. Each group practises its respective religion and customs, cultures, language, ideologies and lifestyles. This multiracial society lives side-by-side, but separated in one political unit. Economically, there exists a division of jobs according to race or ethnicities.

TTooppiicc 88 Multiracial Society

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Discuss the structure and scenario of the Malaysian society before independence;

2. Explain the history of the formation of a multiracial society in this country; and

3. Identify the factors resulting in the differences between races along racial lines.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

TOPIC 8 MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY 131

WHO COMPRISES THE MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY IN MALAYSIA?

8.1

Do you know that there are around 60 ethnic groups, big and small, in Malaysia? The Malays comprise 54% of the total population in the country, followed by the Chinese who form 26% of the population. Meanwhile Indians make up 8%, and the other pribumi races including those in Sabah and Sarawak form 12% of the population.

PROCESS OF FORMING A MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY IN MALAYSIA

8.2

8.2.1 Who Inhabited Malaya Before the Existence of a Multiracial Society?

Do you know that before the existence of the three main communities (Malay, Chinese and Indian), almost the entire population of Malaya consisted of Malays? In the early 19th century, more than 90% of the population in the Peninsular of Malaysia and Singapore were Malays. There was only a small number of Chinese who had come to Malaya as traders and settled down in Malacca, Kuala Terengganu, Johor River, Pahang River and Kelantan. Meanwhile, a small number of Indians worked as labourers in coffee and sugarcane plantations in Penang and Seberang Prai. The immigration of Chinese and Indians on a large scale to Malaya started in the middle of the 19th century. This phenomenon occurred as a result of British colonial policy of bringing in those races, especially to move the economic sector. The 19th century actually saw the British domination of the political and economic structures in Malaya on a wider scale. Tin mining was the source of wealth in Malaya, and was exploited to its fullest by the British. To support the capitalist economic activities, the British brought in Chinese and Indian labourers to not only work in tin mines, but in other economic sectors as well. This phenomenon continued till the outbreak of World War II. The significant effect of the liberal policies by the British was the forming of a multiracial society and the various lifestyles and races. The mass immigration has changed the original population structure in Malaysia.


The multiracial society in Malaya caused the British to govern the people separately. This policy is known as Âdivide and ruleÊ. This policy led to the decline of Bumiputra participation, but also led to specialisation among the immigrants and ensured the segregation of each race. Hence, the immigrants were allowed to maintain their respective identities and cultures while direct relations with other races, especially the Bumiputras, were frowned upon.

8.2.2 Who are the Malays?

The Malays are the original inhabitants of Malaya. The Malays today are in greater numbers due to the entry of various Malay groups from other islands to Malaya. Since the 19th century, there had been an influx of Indonesian Malays to Malaya. This immigration occurred as a result of political, economic and social standards that could ensure their comfort. These Indonesian communities also came from various islands such as Java, Sumatera, Sulawesi and Riau. Before colonialisation, the main economic activity of the coastal Malays was trade. Trade was primarily carried out along the main rivers in the Malay States. Hence, the traditional Malay kingdoms were focused on the banks and river mouths. For the states on the East coast of the peninsular, the inhabitants were involved in fishing and farming. For the women in Kelantan and Terengganu, many took part in small trade activities. From this scenario, it is clear that the Malay economy in the Malay States was based on trade as well as self-sufficing economies like farming, livestock, fishing and collecting forest produce. However, the economic domination by the Malays on the state economies gradually changed and declined after the interference of the British in local political affairs. The influx of labourers also altered the economic structure of the Malay community. As a result of one-sided trade, the economic performance of the Malays during the colonial period stagnated and declined. Many losses were endured by the Malays. Besides economic domination by foreign labourers, the British themselves contributed to the decline of the Malays. In farming, for example, the British created policies that ensured the Malays remained as self-sufficing farmers. The Malays were also not encouraged to participate in the modern economic sector. The British justification was that they did not want the customs and traditions of the Malays to be affected by modernisation. The Malays were also alleged to be reluctant to work under the supervision of others. Therefore they were said to have preferred to work by themselves.


8.2.3 The Chinese Community

The mass immigration of Chinese occurred after the British took control of Penang from the Sultan of Kedah in 1786, the takeover of Singapore from the Sultan of Johor in 1819 and after the creation of the Straits Settlements in 1826. Most of these Chinese communities originated from the Kwangtung and Tukuin provinces. Many also came from the districts of Amoy, Sen-Yu, Hok-Chiu and Eng Chon. At the early stages, the Chinese labourers were concentrated at early mining sites like Lukut and Sungai Ujong. The immigration increased as mining activities boomed. In the 19th and 20th century, the Chinese communities diverged on mining areas in Perak, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. Chinese entry into Malaya also was channelled through the gambier and pepper plantations. The Chinese were brought to Johor via the Kangchu System using authorisation letters called ÂSurat SungaiÊ. The British encouraged the entry of Chinese labourers by approving several related laws. For example, in 1877 the Chinese Immigrants and the Crimpling Ordinance were approved. The department of Protection of the Chinese was established to protect Chinese labourers. The Chinese who migrated to Malaya actually comprised various groups like the Hokkiens, Cantonese, Hakkas, Teochews and Hailams.

8.2.4 The Indian Community

The migration of Indians to Malaya occurred on a large scale from 1840s onwards. Most Indian labourers originated from the South India. The Indian labourers started off as workers in coffee and sugarcane plantations in Seberang Perai. The number of Indian labourers increased when rubber plantations sprouted all over Malaya. Hence, the Indians focused on rubber plantation areas in Perak, Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. Records show that from 1900 to 1910, around 48 000 Indian labourers migrated to Malaya. This number increased greatly 10 years later, between 1911 and 1920 when it was estimated that 908 000 Indian labourers migrated to Malaya. Records show that 90% of the immigrants were Tamils from Chennai, while the rest were of Telegu and Malayam ethnicities. There were also Punjabis and Ceylonese. The largest Indian ethnicity was the Tamils who formed 80% of the total Indian population while Malayalees consisted 7% and Telegus 4%. Most Tamils worked in rubber estates as labourers. There were also those that served in government departments in the early 20th century. The Telegus also worked in the estates, while the Punjabis initially served in the police force and railway services as well as security guards.


Indian labourers working in Malaya either migrated willingly or were forced to migrate. The latter comprised prisoners or captives who worked in building roads, railway tracks, bridges and government buildings. Those who came willingly usually worked in the rubber, coffee and sugarcane plantations. The most popular system utilised in bringing in Indian labourers was the Kangani System. According to this system, a labourer who had worked in Malaya would return to India in efforts to bring in new labourers to work with him in Malaya. This person was termed Kangani. However, this system was abolished in 1938. There was also a system called the Contract System where a labourer worked for a stipulated period as stated in the contract.

8.2.5 Who are the Pribumi Inhabitants of Sarawak?

Sarawak has a certain population distribution due to the existence of various indigenous tribes with unique identities. Sarawak had a land area of 48250 square miles. Of the total Sarawak population, approximately 70% consists of Bumiputras. The Ibans are the largest group followed by the Bidayuhs. The Ibans inhabit all parts of Sarawak, especially along the river banks. The Bidayuhs are more concentrated in the First Division, in the districts of Serian, Kuching, Bau and Lundu. In Sarawak, most Malays inhabit the lower parts of the river valleys, especially in the First and Second Divisions, as well as in small parts of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Divisions. Other than the Malays, there are many Melanau tribes inhabiting the coastal areas, but they are more concentrated in the Third, Fourth and Fifth Divisions. There are also the Kadayan and Bisayan tribes who inhabit the fringes of the Fourth and Fifth Divisions. The low plains are mostly inhabited by the Ibans (Sea Dayak) and Bidayuhs (Land Dayaks). They are settled at the upper rivers as opposed to the Malays and Melanau, but lower than the Kenyah, Kayan and Penan tribes. The mountainous regions are inhabited by other tribes known as the Orang Ulu. They comprise of minority ethnicities like the Kelabit, Murut and Penan tribes. The total number of these tribes amounts to no more than 5% of the total Sarawak population. Most of the inhabitants of the mountainous regions are permanently settled, except for the Penans who still practise a nomadic lifestyle. They live in the forests of the Fourth and Seventh Divisions.


8.2.6 Who are the Pribumi Inhabitants of Sabah?

In Sabah, the main groups are the Kadazan-Dusun, Murut and Bajau ethnicities where the Kadazan-Dusun forms the largest ethnicity in Sabah. According to a population census in 2000, the Kadazan-Dusun comprises 18.4% of the total Malaysian population, followed by the Bajau at 17.3% and Malays at 15.3%.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A MULTIRACIAL SOCIETY

8.3

The main characteristics of a multiracial society in Malaysia are:

(a) Different religions and beliefs; and

(b) Different cultures and customs.

8.3.1 Religions and Beliefs

(a) The Malay Society Each race has its respective religion and belief. As you are aware, Malays practise the Islamic faith. Islam was brought to Malaya in the 14th or 15th century. The Malay Malacca Sultanate was renowned as an imperial centre that played an important role in the spread and establishment of Islam in the region. Hence, from year to year, Islam remained the main belief of the Malay community in Malaya. Overall, the teachings of Islam aim to:

(i) Produce humans who have the correct concept of belief, that is, belief in the powers of Allah only;

(ii) Produce humans who have an organised and systematic lifestyle in every aspect of their lives; and

(iii) Produce humans responsible as AllahÊs Caliphs on Earth, and thus to know who they are and have a direction in life.

(b) The Chinese Society

The Chinese practise Buddhism, Christianity and more. Among the beliefs practised by the Chinese is Taoism. Taoism is a system of belief and philosophy. TaoismÊs influence is vast. This belief enriched Confucianism and helped expand the teachings of Buddha, as well as provide spirit, inspirations and morals to the Chinese. This belief leans towards a love of nature and peace. Taoism originates from the word Tao which means ÂThe WayÊ.


Another faith popular among the Chinese is Confucianism. The founder of this teaching was Kung Fu Tze (Confucius) who was born in 551 BC and passed away at 72. He received his educations and once served as a magistrate and a minister. He spent a lot of time looking through old manuscripts and delivering noble teachings about life. He taught a lot of social and moral philosophies as well as guidelines of conduct based on abstract values such as care, love, peace, harmony, humanity, wisdom, courage and loyalty. Confucius also introduced an important system of morals known as the Five Relationships (Wu Lun) which are relationships between:

(i) Ruler and people;

(ii) Husband and wife;

(iii) Father and child;

(iv) Siblings; and

(v) Friends. (c) The Indian Society

Like the Chinese, the Indians also arrived at Malaya with the religions and beliefs practised in their homeland. The most followed religion is Hinduism. Hinduism is a religion that originated in the Indian subcontinent with its foundations in the Vedic civilisation. It has no known founder, being itself a conglomerate of diverse beliefs and traditions. Hinduism provides a vast body of scriptures. These scriptures expound on a broad of range of theology, philosophy and mythology, providing spiritual insights and guidance on the practice of dharma (religious living).

There are several features in Hinduism, among which are: (i) Belief in One Supreme Being

Each Hindu follows different methods of self-realisation and worship different aspects of the one supreme God. Although there are many different gods and goddesses, each represents or manifests one Supreme Being.

(ii) Karma and the Concept of Reincarnation

The Hindu society believes their birth into a caste is influenced by their conduct in the previous life. This is due to their belief in reincarnation. Therefore, to ensure their reincarnation into a noble caste, their behaviour during life has to be good and well-mannered. The element that determines which caste they enter after reincarnation is called


Karma. Hence, the karmic rules have to be followed to ensure happiness, peace and longevity.

(iii) Vedic Scriptures The Vedic scriptures are guidelines in the Hindu Society. The scriptures contain life stories, political practises, cultures, places, attire, drinks and such. The scriptures also contain predictions of the arrival of a prophet. Originally there were only three Vedas Rig Veda, Sama Veda and Yajur Veda. Later on, Atharva, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanisads and more were added.

(d) Sarawak Society

Overall, the Ibans do not practise a particular religion. They still hold on to their animistic beliefs and these beliefs have now been influenced by Hindu-Buddha practices. After the arrival of Western forces, Christianity was brought in. This phenomenon led to the spread of Christianity among a large number of Ibans. The Malays in Sarawak practise Islam, which forms their village features like unity, polite mannerisms, responsibility towards the welfare of the entire community and such. In every village, there are mosques that functions as the centre for all religious activities besides worship. Religious schools also functioned as centres for Islamic activities.

(e) Sabah Society

The Kadazan-Dusun society, the biggest society in Sabah, practises animistic beliefs. A small part of the community has embraced Islam and Christianity. However, in the rural areas, many are still pagans. The Kadazan-Dusun believes the existence of heaven and earth. For the pagans, they believe that the spirit of the dead will go to Mount Kinabalu.

8.3.2 Cultures and Customs

The Malays Malays speak Bahasa Melayu. Before the arrival of Westerners, Malays used Jawi as a form of writing, influenced by Arab traders since the Malay Malacca Sultanate. There are two customs that are practised by the Malays in Malaya, the Adat Perpatih and Adat Temenggung. Adat Perpatih is practised by the Malay community in Negeri Sembilan. This custom places emphasis on concepts on democracy and cooperation.


The Chinese Among the cultures and customs of the Chinese are: (a) Chinese Calendar The Chinese calendar starts from the first day of the new moon and ends

after 29 or 30 days. Each year has twelve months and known by certain animals. After a cycle of twelve years, the first zodiac is repeated. These zodiacs are rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, goat, monkey, cock, dog and pig.

(b) Desire to Have a Male Firstborn The desire to have sons runs deep in the Chinese community because sons

retain the family name and will conduct the rituals for departed parents. (c) Education Since thousands of years ago, the Chinese had stressed on education. In 19th

and 20th century in Malaya, Chinese children comprised the highest number of students compared to the Malays and Indians. The Chinese believe that, no matter how poor a person is, he or she should be given equal opportunities for education. It is hoped that education would be able to advance a family and assist relatives in the future.

(d) Funeral Rituals The Chinese often have processions when there are any death. The

procession is accompanied by music and bands, and usually incurs high costs. Therefore a person celebrating 60th birthday is considered qualified to enter the Âcoffin associationÊ and is therefore required to pay a monthly fee to obtain a good coffin upon his or her death.

The Indians The Indians also have their own cultures and traditions. These cultures were also brought over from India and have now undergone assimilation with local cultures. The Indian society is divided into certain social hierarchies. In the caste system, the Hindus are divided into four social hierarchies, which are:

(a) Brahmin consists of nobles and religious leaders. This class is equated to the status of the creatorÊs head.

(b) Ksyatria consists of warriors and is considered the hand of the creator.

(c) Vaisya consists of commoners who mostly work as traders or artisans and equated to status of the thigh of the creator.

(d) Sudra consists of slaves equated to the status of the feet of the creator.


The Indians celebrate various festivals. Three main festivals are Deepavali, Thaipusam and Thai Ponggal. There are also several festivals celebrated in certain temples throughout Malaysia. Sarawak Society The Ibans practise a popular ancient culture called head hunting. A man will hunt for an enemyÊs head to be shown to his potential in-laws or as a symbol of being a warrior. This custom is now no longer practised. The Ibans practise a concept of cooperation called Âutai basai gagamitÊ (there are no big problems that cannot be solved). The Ibans stay in longhouses, which are inhabited by several families. A longhouse is divided into several rooms and each room inhabited by the core of the family. The kelabit longhouses do not have rooms for families, but just rooms that separate the outside from the inside. Sabah Society The Kadazan-Dusun society in Sabah also has many cultures and customs. For example, if there is a death, the funeral ceremony involves the entire community. Bonfires are lit to chase away ghosts and evil spirits. There are also the concepts of ÂmihadÊ (crying for the corpse), ÂmemojokÊ (bathing the corpse), ÂmengumanÊ (decorations and clothing the corpse), ÂlobongÊ (grave) and ÂpenukupÊ (feast). For births, the process of naming babies involves discussion with family members and neighbours. The ÂmintuhunÊ custom is a custom of touching the babyÊs feet on the ground. Discuss racial unity as an important constant in determining political, economic and social stability.

ACTIVITY 8.1

(a) In the context of racial relations in Malaysia, we only interact in the offices, workplaces and markets but we do not share problems across the boundaries of these places. What is your opinion?

(b) Discuss racial unity as an important constant in determining

political, economic and social stability.


IMPACTS ON ETHNIC RELATIONS 8.4

The following are the impacts of multiracial society on ethnic relations.

8.4.1 Different Religions and Cultures

Each ethnic group has different religions and cultures. The Malays practise Islam while a large number of Indians are Hindus. Most Chinese practise a mixture of Buddhism, Lao-Tze and Confucianism. There are also many Chinese and Indians who are Christians. Each main race has cultures, language, arts and values that differ from one another.

8.4.2 Divide and Rule Policy

The British policy of divide and rule affected ethnic relations in Malaysia. Have we ever asked if this was intentionally done or was there a hidden agenda? Ethnic segregation implemented by the British under the pretext of security and interests actually served to isolate each group. The British intentionally set different status and roles for the Malays, Chinese and Indians. For example, among the Malays, the nobles were given lucrative positions in the civil service, while the commoners were encouraged to continue living in the rural areas. The Chinese, on the other hand, were encouraged to stay in the mining and town areas with the Indians in the estates. Interactions between the races were limited to conversations in the office and marketplace. Hence, each race lived among their own kind and did not think of resisting the British. This British policy has stuck on till today and would take a long time to change.

8.4.3 Separate Systems of Education

As independence approached, there was still no single national system of education in Malaya. What existed were four different channels of educations- British, Malay, Chinese and Indian. Each ethnic group would send children to primary schools using their respective mother tongue. Hence, there were no interactions among students of different ethnicities. The curriculum in these schools also differed. The Malay schools stressed on reading, writing and counting while the Chinese and Indian schools were based on curriculum from their respective countries. This formed differing perspectives on the world in general and enhanced the ethnic differences among the Malays, Chinese and Indians. Since schools used their own ethnic languages, there was no single medium of instruction in schools, which lasted until 1970 and resulted in a lack of understanding and unity among the races. In todayÊs context, the setting up of


national type schools still continues, though the usage of mother tongue as the medium of instruction remains a heated issue.

8.4.4 Different Economic Roles

As a result of British colonialism, each race was identified by its economic role. The Malays usually lived in the rural areas and practised an economic system of self-sustaining farming in villages. The Indians lived on rubber estates and worked for generations as rubber tappers, while the Chinese worked in mines and as traders in towns. This phenomenon has continued till today where race identification by economic activity is still prevalent. Though there are Malays and Indians in the professional sectors, they still cannot match the strength of the Chinese in trade and businesses. Why does this occur? Should we blame the colonialists?

8.4.5 Different Living Areas

The classification of races based on residence is also still prevalent. Though the history of this type of racial identification has long passed, this still lingers in todayÊs society. The Chinese mainly inhabit the towns and cities, while the Malays still live on the fringes of cities and in villages. So do the Indians. This phenomenon can be seen throughout Malaysia, including Sabah and Sarawak.

8.4.6 Different Economic Activities

At the early days of independence, the Malays, Chinese and Indians were involved in different economic activities. Most Malays in the rural areas were farmers, fishermen or rubber tappers. Most Chinese were involved in the business and mining sectors while a large number of Indians were labourers in estates. However, though Malaysia has progressed, division of races according to economic activity is still evident where most Chinese are involved in business and trade, while the Malay numbers in these sectors are still small. The Malays are still active in sub-professional careers. As a result of different economic activities, there exists a gap in income among the races, with the majority of poor being Malays. This has given rise to economic competitions and dissatisfaction among ethnicities that could jeopardise national unity.


8.4.7 Ethnic Associations

The existence of various political, economic and social associations based on ethnicities has also strengthened ethnic identities and suspicions. This is because these associations only fight for the rights of the ethnicities represented. Race-based political bodies often exploit differences like language, cultures and economics among the various ethnicities for their own political interests. This creates tension among the races in Malaysia. The communal political parties and their actions also affect ethnic relations. Each race in Malaysia is represented by their respective parties. It is most unfortunate if a particular race is so engrossed with their political party that they lose sight of national unity.

8.4.8 Communal Newspapers

Publications of various languages for certain races have created misunderstandings among different ethnicities.

8.4.9 Geographical Factor

Geography also has an effect on ethnic relations in Malaysia, especially among races in the Peninsular and in Sabah and Sarawak. In this case, the problem of interaction is the main factor preventing citizens in the Peninsular from being close to the people from Sabah and Sarawak.

ACTIVITY 8.2

(a) Is the introduction of Ethnic Studies as a subject an easy step in more effective ethnic relations? What are your views?

(b) In your opinion, what are the main factors that have strained ethnic

relations in Malaysia? Is it due to economic, political or social factors?


• The existence of a multiracial society is a priceless gift. • This adds to the diversity of cultures and languages. • In fact, our diversity has made Malaysia famous around the world.

Colonialisation Confucianism Ethnicities

Multiracial society Self-sustaining economy

Hasnah Binti Hussiin, & Mardiana Nordin. (2002). Pengajian Malaysia. (Edisi

Kedua). Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti, Sdn. Bhd.