Thesis seminar-1-mats

The Ultimate Guide to Writing a

Thesis in TESOL/AL

MA. Roberto Criollo

Editorial ACD

Catalogación ROBERTO CRIOLLO

THE ULTIMATE GUIDE TO WRITING A THESIS IN TESOL/AL México: ACD, junio 2003

288 pág.; 21 cm. ISBN: 968-5354-56-1

La información contenida en la obra es propiedad intelectual del autor,

por lo que se prohíbe su reproducción total o parcial

por cualquier medio electrónico o mecánico

sin la autorización escrita del mismo.

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The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL Roberto Criollo, M.A.

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

_________________________________________________________________

Contents Page

FOREWORD ix

INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE 1

CHAPTER ONE: SELECTING A TOPIC AND NARROWING IT

DOWN

4

1.1 Selecting a Topic 7

1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources 9

1.2.1 Books 9

1.2.2 Other Resources 10

1.2.2.1 Specialized Journals and Handbooks 10

1.2.2.2 Technical Dictionaries 10

1.2.2.3Annotated Bibliographies 11

1.2.2.4 Computer Searches 11

1.2.2.4.1 Databases 11

1.2.2.4.2 Online Journals 12

1.2.2.5 Other Theses 13

1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources 13

1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology 15

1.4.1 Research Methods 16

1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research 16

1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research 16

1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research 16

1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research 17

1.4.1.2 Correlational Research 17

1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies 18

1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies 18

1.4.1.3 Experimental Research 19

1.4.1.4 Other Research Types 19

1.4.1.4.1 Historical Research 20

1.4.14.2 Causal-Comparative Research 20

1.4.1.4.3 Methodological Research 20

1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research 21


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1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology 24

1.4.4 Research Procedures in Second Language Acquisition 25

1.4.4.1 Error Analysis 25

1.4.4.2 Methods for Investigating Developmental Patterns 27

1.4.4.2.1 Obligatory Occasion Analysis 27

1.4.4.2.2 Target-Like Use Analysis 28

1.4.4.2.3 Frequency Analysis 28

1.4.4.3 Research Methods for Studying Illocutionary Acts 29

1.4.4.4 Methods for Investigating Input and Interaction 30

1.5 Narrowing Down Your Topic 30

1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic? 31

CHAPTER TWO: WRITING THE INTRODUCTION 35

2.1 Parts of the Thesis 37

2.2 Content of the Introductory Chapter 39

2.3 Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction 40

2.4 Rhetoric and Formulas 41

2.4.1 Introduction to the Problem 41

2.4.2 Purpose of the Study 47

2.4.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses 48

2.4.3.1 Research Questions 48

2.4.3.2 Hypotheses 49

2.4.4 Definitions of Terms 50

2.4.5 Significance of the Study 50

2.5 Sample Introductions 51

CHAPTER THREE: ACADEMIC WRITING, COMPUTER SKILLS,

AND FORMAT

75

3.1 Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis 77

3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style 77

3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs 78

3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness 80

3.2 Editing the Paper 80

3.2.1 Editing for Grammar 80

3.2.1.1 The Sentence 81

3.2.1.2 The Paragraph 82

3.3 Using the Computer 83

3.3.1 Word for Windows: A Beginning Tutorial 83

3.3.1.1 Turning on the Computer 85


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3.3.1.2 Entering Text 86

3.3.1.3 Moving Around 86

3.3.1.4 Editing Text 86

3.3.1.5 The Toolbars (Barras de Herramientas) 87

3.3.1.6 Formatting Paragraphs 88

3.3.1.7 Cutting, Pasting, and Copying (Cortar, Pegar, y Copiar) 89

3.3.1.8 Windows (Ventanas) 90

3.3.1.9 Selecting Language 90

3.3.1.10 Spelling, Thesaurus, and Grammar (Ortografía y Gramática) 91

3.3.1.11 Inserting Clip Art (Imágenes Prediseñadas) 91

3.3.1.2 Columns 92

3.3.1.13 Sections 93

3.3.1.14 Finding and Replacing (Buscar y Reemplazar) 93

3.3.1.15 Spelling and Thesaurus 94

3.3.1.16 AutoCorrect (Autocorrección) 94

3.3.1.17 Footnotes (Notas a Pie de Página) 94

3.3.1.18 Headers and Footers (Encabezado y Pie de Página) 95

3.3.1.19 Inserting Tables 95

3.3.1.20 Inserting a Chart from Excel 96

3.4 Formatting Your Paper 97

3.4.1 Title Pages 97

3.4.2 Dedications 99

3.4.3 Acknowledgments 100

3.4.4 Table of Contents 101

3.4.5 Table of Appendices 102

3.4.6 List of Tables 102

3.4.7 Body of the Paper 102

3.4.8 References 104

CHAPTER FOUR: WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW 105

4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review 107

4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline 107

4.3 American Psychological Association (APA) Style 110

4.3.1 Citing References in Your Text 110

4.3.2 Citing a Word Discussed in a Secondary Source 112

4.3.3 Citations in the Reference List at the End of Your Paper 112

4.3.3.1 Journal Article 112

4.3.3.2 Book 113

4.3.3.3 Chapter in a Book 113


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4.3.3.4 ERIC Document 114

4.4 Developing the Outline 114

4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph 114

4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice 118

4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence 122

4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors 123

4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors 124

4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View 125

4.4.4 Some Practical Advice for the Review of Literature 132

4.4.4.1 Integrating Ideas from Sources 132

4.4.4.2 Common Errors in the Review of Literature 133

4.4.4.3 Solutions to the Problems 134

4.4.4.4 Revising Literature Review Paragraphs 134

CHAPTER FIVE: WRITING THE METHOD CHAPTER 139

5.1 Content and Function of Chapter III: The Methodology Chapter 141

5.2 Describing Subjects 141

5.3 Instruments 141

5.3.1 Locating and Developing Instruments 142

5.3.2 Developing One’s Own Instruments 142

5.3.3 Procedures for Instrument Design 142

5.4 Describing Instruments 143

5.5 Describing Procedures 143

5.6 Describing Data Analysis 144

5.7 Sample Methodology Chapters and Appended Instruments 145

CHAPTER SIX: WRITING THE RESULTS CHAPTER 181

6.1 Analyzing Data 183

6.1.1 Steps for Data Analysis Procedures 183

6.1.2 Guidelines for Using Tables 183

6.1.3 Considerations When Using Figures 184

6.1.4 Appendices 184

6.2 Content of Chapter Four 185

6.2.1 Hypotheses (Subheadings) 185

6.2.2 Variable 185

6.2.3 Time Sequence 186

6.3 Using Excel to Process Data 186

6.3.1 Moving around the Worksheet 186

6.3.2 Entering Data 186


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6.3.3 Editing Data 187

6.3.4 Resizing 187

6.3.5 Averaging Test Scores 187

6.3.6 Counting the Number of Students 188

6.3.7 Creating a Chart 188

6.3.8 Adding More Data 189

6.3.9 Filling the Formula 189

6.3.10 Putting New Series in the Chart 190

6.3.11 Handling Data in Excel 190

6.3.12 Entering Data 190

6.3.13 Making a Chart 190

6.3.14 Filtering 191

6.3.15 Forms 191

6.3.16 Sorting 191

6.3.17 Subtotals 192

6.3.18 Excel Practice 192

6.4 Writing and Formatting the Chapter 197

6.5 A Note on Quantitative Data Analysis 206

6.5.1 Measures of Central Tendency 206

6.5.2 Measures of Variability 206

6.5.3 SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) 207

6.6 Sample Results Chapters 208

CHAPTER SEVEN: WRITING THE CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER

AND DEVELOPING A PRESENTATION

241

7.1 Writing the Conclusions 243

7.1.1 A Summary of Your Study 243

7.1.2 Implications for Practice (in TESOL) 243

7.1.3 Limitations of the Study 243

7.1.4 Suggestions for Further Research 244

7.2 Concluding Remarks about Chapter Five 244

7.3 Sample Conclusions Chapters 245

7.4 Organizing Your Thesis Presentation 257

7.4.1 Content of the Presentation 257

7.4.2 Developing a PowerPoint Presentation 259

7.4.2.1 Basic Operation and Entering Text 259

7.4.2.2 Changing the Background Color, Design, or Template 259

7.4.2.3 Customizing Animation or Slide Transitions 260

7.5 Defending the Thesis 260


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7.5.1 The Professional Examination 261

7.5.2 Tips for a Successful Defense 262

7.5.2.1 First of All, Prepare Yourself 262

7.5.2.2 Just in Case: Backups, Equipment, and Materials 262

7.5.2.3 Like a Good Actor, Rehearse for Your Big Night 263

7.5.2.4 The One-Million-Dollar Question? 264

7.5.2.5 Formality, Presence, and Etiquette 264

EXERCISE ANSWER KEY 267

LIST OF REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 294

Background Research Upon which the Text is Based 297

Research Methodology 298

Writing and Academic Writing 299

Writing Papers, Theses, Dissertations 299

Data Analysis and Statistics 299

Specialized Dictionaries 300

Theses Directed by the Author 301


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FOREWORD

_________________________________________________________________

“Professionalization” is the concept that best characterizes the current

situation of the English Language Teaching (ELT) academic community in

Mexico (Wharton, 1994). This situation has generated a growing interest among

ELT professionals to pursue graduate studies, participate in conferences, and

publish nationally and internationally. This interest, which emerges from both

their personal motivation for professional development and as a result of the

Mexican educational policies, has generated a very dynamic academic community

in the last ten years.

Given that the majority of these professionals are non-native English speakers,

they are aware of the crucial role that their English language skills play in their

careers. Most of them are conscious that in order to participate actively in the

ELT profession they have to learn to communicate within the ELT discourse

community (Swales 1990).

It is in this context that the presentation of a thesis as an “initiation ritual”

into the profession has acquired a renewed meaning in Mexico. Learning to

communicate within an academic discourse community is a social process.

Every discourse community has its own meaning-making and interpreting

practices. Thus, ELT undergraduate students have to learn to communicate

within the ELT discourse community by observing, comparing, analyzing,

discussing, evaluating, writing and presenting; in other words, through their oral

and written interaction with other novices and experts. They have to learn to write

academic texts which meet the discoursal expectations of their tutors or

professors, who will interpret and finally evaluate their texts. Thus, the process of

writing a thesis has become an opportunity for undergraduate students to enhance


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their English skills and learn to communicate within the ELT community, which

enables their further professional development after graduation. Furthermore, the

fact that students have to write a thesis has other advantages. It allows for a more

holistic evaluation where the students are expected to demonstrate their abilities,

attitudes and values as well as their knowledge. The presentation of a thesis is

sometimes the only holistic evaluation process that students are subject to and

where they integrate what they have learned along the years in the university.

Roberto Criollo's book comes then as an invaluable contribution to fill an

existing gap. Books that prepare for thesis writing in ELT and enable learners to

carry out research are hard to find. The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in

TESOL/AL has several strengths. First of all, it is the result of the author’s own

reflective teaching practice and ongoing engagement with theory. Second, it was

developed in a “real” context with students at the Benemérita Universidad

Autónoma de México. Nevertheless, as recently confirmed in an ELT event for

Tutors at the BUAP where professors from 5 Mexican state universities shared

common problems of thesis writing, this book will address the needs of many

university students struggling with thesis writing in Mexico and elsewhere. The

third advantage of the book is that it is Genre-based. It focuses on the

communicative intentions, the content, the rhetorical organization, the grammar

and the register used in the development of writing an ELT Thesis in English.

Finally, it is a hands-on product based writing book which can either be used as

part of a course or by autonomous learners.

As a practicing teacher educator, I am fortunate to see my former students

make a career in the ELT field. I got to know Roberto Criollo as an

undergraduate student at the BUAP more than 10 years ago. Since then I

somehow knew he had the personal drive and capacity to become an outstanding


xi

professional. Then he left for the US where he successfully completed an MA in

TESOL at Columbia Teachers’ College. Now as colleagues and friends, we

frequently share ideas, teaching experiences, and a continuous concern for

making the field of ELT more professional. This book is certainly a contribution

to this.

Fatima Encinas Prudencio,

Ex-coordinadora de la Licenciatura en Lenguas Modernas, BUAP.

Coordinadora del programa de Inglés de la Universidad Iberoamericana Plantel

Golfo Centro.


1

INTRODUCTION TO THE GUIDE

_________________________________________________________________

The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Thesis in TESOL/AL is intended to help

students and BA./MA. candidates in the development and presentation of their

thesis projects. It is based on systematic research carried out over five years and

on actual experience in the direction of 32 BA. theses and 2 MA. theses in this

field. The underlying theoretical approach supporting this book is genre analysis

(GA), which views writing as a communicative act within a discourse community.

GA considers each genre (“type of text”) to be unique and thus suggests that it be

explicitly taught in terms of communicative purposes and rhetorical structure. For

this reason, the Guide is completely and exclusively directed at developing the

thesis, and no time is wasted explaining concepts or theoretical constructs that are

not directly related to the development of the thesis project.

In addition, each chapter contains exercises that will prepare the learner for

the actual tasks he has to perform on his/her own project. The correct answers to

each exercise are provided in the Answer Key to the guide. In this way, the reader

can see whether he/she has correctly understood the instructions, principles, or

models presented in the chapter. The ultimate and unique feature of the Guide is

that it provides actual examples of thesis chapters for the reader to use as models

when developing his/her own.

The Guide is organized in seven chapters, each focused on a different stage

of the process of writing and defending a thesis. These chapters, although

consecutive, are not intended to be read in a linear manner. Instead, the reader

should go to the chapters that he or she is interested in, depending on the stage

that he/she is at in the development of his or her own thesis project. From that


2

particular chapter, the reader can hop back and forth, using the information that is

useful for his/her most practical and immediate purposes.

Chapter One concerns the selection and the evaluation of the topic. It will

be useful for those who still do not have a thesis project or are doubtful about it.

In Chapter Two, attention is paid to the process of writing an introduction to the

thesis. This process is approached fully by presenting an outline of the content, an

explanation for each part of the chapter, the rhetorical formulas to be used, and

sample introductions to guide the aspiring thesis writer. Chapter Three focuses

on the writing conventions, the computer skills, and the formats and templates

necessary to develop the thesis project. This part should be continuously used as a

reference when working on other chapters, as most of the content presented here

will apply to the whole paper. Chapter Four is, without a doubt, one of the most

interesting chapters, as it deals with the theoretical framework of the thesis. In it,

the reader will find the easy way to the development of the literature review for

his/her project. The approach and techniques used here will facilitate the task of

writing what is, undoubtedly, the longest and most difficult chapter in the thesis.

There are clear instructions from writing an outline, citing references in APA

style, developing the outline, to several examples that will guide and train the

reader. Similarly, Chapter Five deals with the methodology chapter, providing

explanations, exercises, and examples of chapters with appended research

instruments that will facilitate work on this part of the thesis.

In Chapter Six, the process of writing the results chapter of the thesis is

explained in detail. Data analysis, handling data in Excel, and calculating

statistics are only some examples of what the reader will find in this chapter. In

addition, the chapter is fully complemented with an explanation of the content of

the results chapter, some exercises, and actual examples for the reader to study


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and use as models. Finally, Chapter Seven deals with the conclusions, developing

a presentation, and preparing for defense. At the end of the book, the Answer Key

and a List of References and Suggested Bibliography are provided for the reader

who needs additional information or is interested in any of the given areas

outlined.

It is now up to the reader to make the most of this guide. Good luck and

may your efforts be rewarded with an academic degree.

Roberto Criollo, MA.


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CHAPTER ONE:

SELECTING A TOPIC AND NARROWING IT DOWN

Selecting a Topic

How to Search for Bibliographic Resources

Reading and Exploiting Resources

Research Methodology

Narrowing Down Your Topic

Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?


7

In this chapter, we will look at the steps that should be taken when

selecting, narrowing down, and evaluating a thesis topic.

1.1 Selecting a Topic

One of the most difficult steps in developing a thesis is selecting a topic.

Selection of topic requires familiarity with the state of research in the area of

TESOL/AL. You need to know:

What has been accomplished

What hypotheses have or have not been supported

What the controversies and the unresolved issues are

What theories are applicable

What contributions have resulted from research

(Long, Convey, & Chwalek, 1985)

As you can see, choosing a topic may be difficult because of a lack of

knowledge of the area of study. Sometimes students do not have a clear idea of

what they can or cannot write a thesis on. Then, they tend to think of unrealistic

or impossible topics that they will eventually drop. Before choosing a topic, a

careful analysis of our area of study and its different sub-areas is necessary.

On the other hand, it is also of crucial importance to select a topic based on

one’s interests and concerns. Successful completion of a thesis project depends to

a great extent on one’s willingness to ‘marry’ the topic. For that reason, the first

step in topic selection will always be defining one’s research interests. The figure

below outlines the steps that should be followed in topic selection.


8

Steps in Topic Selection

As the figure illustrates, you must first explore your interests and try to find

something that you could develop as a thesis project. When you have found it, the

second step is to review the literature related to this topic. Even when this

literature review does not yet involve writing a theoretical background chapter,

the main concepts and theories behind the topic should be investigated.

The second step in topic selection involves then developing a preliminary

list of references and finding definitions for the most important terms related to

the topic to be researched into. The following section provides information on

how to do to this. Get ready to go to the library, buy a large notebook, and read

the information below.

Define your interests

Think of a possible

topic

Identify specific

researchable problems

Review the literature nterests

Decide on one of them

and focus on it


9

1.2 How to Search for Bibliographic Resources

1.2.1 Books

Using books seems to be easy, but it might be a very difficult task if the

research is not systematic. Searching and exploring resources requires careful

planning and organization. You may want to follow the steps below to optimize

the use of your bibliographic sources.

1. Go to your library and look for books that are directly related to your topic.

2. If you’re not sure whether or not a given book may be useful, check the table

of contents.

3. If the book is useful, check it out. If it is not, just leave it there... you may find

lots of interesting books, but if they are not related to your project, do not

waste your time and energy on them!

4. Once you have a book in your hands, write its data on a list. You will need

this later for your list of references. The APA format for citing references is

shown below.

Author’(s’) Last Names, First Name Initials. (Year in parentheses). Title of the

book underlined or in italics. City of publication: Publishing House.

Here’s one example:

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Notice that the second line is indented as to show the author’s last name.

5. Make copies of only the page(s) or chapter(s) you are going to need.

Remember... everything may be interesting, but if it is not directly related to

your study, you don’t need it. Remember to include the first page of the book

so you can retrieve its data.


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6. Make copies of the bibliography at the end of the book.... you may find useful

references there!

7. Get a big binder and put all of your copies together. That will be your thesis

bible.

1.2.2 Other Resources

Besides books, there are some other important sources of information that

can make your literature review more comprehensive (Long, Convey, & Chwalek,

1985). These are:

1.2.2.1 Specialized Journals and Handbooks

In this type of publications, you can find updated information about current

theories in SLA and TESOL. Some of the most common ones are:

The TESOL Quarterly

Language

Applied Linguistics

You can probably find some volumes of the TESOL Quarterly in your

Library. Also, you could subscribe to it, and get new information every three

months!

1.2.2.2 Technical Dictionaries

Dictionaries that define terms and concepts in our field. One example is:

Richards, J.C., Platt, J., & Platt, H. (1992). Longman dictionary of language

teaching and applied linguistics. Essex: Longman.

Besides providing you with some definitions of important concepts, a

technical dictionary can guide you in your search for resources, as it tells you how


11

some terms are related and provides you with the bibliography where the

definitions were taken. It is advisable to look for the original sources mentioned

in the dictionary. A direct citation gives more weight to your research!

1.2.2.3 Annotated Bibliographies

These are ‘books’ that only contain bibliography about a given concept (i.e.

reading). Usually they are listed alphabetically and a brief explanation of the

content of each book or article is given. You can also base your research on these

annotated bibliographies, but of course you should also look for the original

sources mentioned there!

1.2.2.4 Computer Searches

1.2.2.4.1 Databases

Nowadays, the internet has become a great aid for research. Without moving from

your school, you can have access to numerous data bases with information about

particular topics in science and humanities. However, the risk of computer

searches is that they are time-consuming and you can find a lot of trash on the net.

I strongly encourage you to be serious in your computer searches. Some reliable

sources of information are:

ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center): Book reviews and

articles on different fields.

RLIN (Research Libraries Information Network): Book reviews and

articles on different fields. It can be accessed by key words.

OCLC (On-Line College Library Center): Same as previous ones.

DIALOG: Same

ORBIT: Same


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Bibliographic Retrieval System (BRS): Bibliographies and reviews.

Educational Testing Service (ETS): Statistical information and test

instruments.

MICASE. The University of Michigan Corpus of American Spoken

English. You will find samples to conduct discourse or conversation

analysis.

CHILDES. The most important database on child language, with

software and samples of child speech for you to use in your research.

Important if you want to do research on children linguistic development.

All of these data bases can be accessed through internet. Go to a search

instrument (Alta Vista, Yahoo), and type any of the titles above... you’ll get to the

sites. Once in the sites, look for the information on the topics you are researching.

1.2.2.4.2 Online Journals

A second important source of information and references that you will find

on the world wide web is the Online Journal. An online journal is a publication

similar to a printed journal except that it is available through the net. Some

journals are refereed and some others aren’t. Some of them have a printed

counterpart, and some others do not. Yet some of them are free and some others

will require you to use your plastic money.

1. Check out the Cambridge Catalogue of Online Journals at

http://193.60.94.214/public/door

2. Or the Oxford Journals: http://www3.oup.co.uk/jnls/online/

Some suggested free journals and e-zines are the following:

3. The Internet TESL Journal: Directed at TESL teachers, with theoretical and

practical stuff that you can use and cite. http://iteslj.org Check my article!

http://193.60.94.214/public/door

http://www3.oup.co.uk/jnls/online/

http://iteslj.org/


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4. TESL-EJ http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/

5. Language Learning and Technology http://llt.msu.edu/

6. ELT Spectrum magazine www1.oup.co.uk/elt/magazine/

7. EFL Web http://www.eflweb.com/

8. Onestopenglish Magazine http://www.onestopenglish.com/index.htm

Macmillan publishers free magazine.

1.2.2.5 Other Theses

Theses on related topics or on the same topic as yours can help you in two ways.

First, you can use their information and cite them as references. Also, you may

find in the list of references some titles of books that you didn’t know about

which could be useful for your research!

All of the sources listed above are valid and reliable references. In any

case, remember that you should provide careful reference of where you take the

information from, and that reading original sources gives support to your

research. Beware of plagiarism!

The last step in this search for references involves looking for definitions of

the most important terms to be used in the research. Reading and note-taking

should then be done systematically. First, get your list of terms to be defined.

Then, scan the materials, taking into account the considerations below

1.3 Reading and Exploiting Resources

Again, although reading seems to be an activity for which no explanations or

instructions are necessary, reading and exploiting resources for a research project

needs to be a systematic activity. Make sure that you follow the steps given

below:

http://www.kyoto-su.ac.jp/information/tesl-ej/

http://llt.msu.edu/

http://www1.oup.co.uk/elt/magazine/

http://www.eflweb.com/

http://www.onestopenglish.com/index.htm


14

First, read the whole text of interest from the beginning to the end, trying to

get just the general idea. Then put the text down and try to infer this main idea.

In your own words, and in the shortest way possible (one sentence may be

good), write what the text is about. Also write the main idea or point that you

think the author is trying to make.

Read the text again for more specific information. This time, you may want to

use a highlighter to underline the important information. At this point,

remember that important information means definitions, expression of points

of view, conclusions, and the like. Also, the first sentence of each paragraph

(the topic sentence... remember?) is usually the most important one and it tells

you what the paragraph is about.

Take some notes of the important information you intend to use for your

project. Try to summarize the information using outlines, charts, graphs, or

any other visual representation that can help you get a better understanding of

the text.

Later, you can write this information on cards (or even better, onto a

notebook, which would be exclusive for your thesis notes), for further use in

your literature review. There are two ways to take notes:

Copying directly from source, using the author’s own words (Quotation).

Summarizing and/or paraphrasing the information, using your own words

(Citation).

Citations involve a more careful reading and processing of information, and

they are recommended. However, they are more difficult to write. The important

thing, in any case, is avoid mixing the author’s words and yours. If you use a

quotation, make sure you copy correctly and accurately, and if you use citations,


15

make sure you are not using any word that the author has used. Every note should

include references, including chapter or page numbers.

Organize your notes in such a way that you can refer to them, read them again,

and compare and contrast the information.

1.4 Narrowing Down the Topic: Research Methodology

Once you have developed a little literature review, it’s time to delimit your topic.

That is, you must identify specific researchable problems. To do this, you need to

select the research method that you are going to use. Let us start by defining the

concept of thesis.

What is a thesis?

Simply stated, a thesis is a piece of research that is required by a university in

order to award an academic degree.

What is research?

“Research is the study of an event, situation, problem or phenomenon using

systematic and objective methods in order to understand it better and develop

theories or principles about it” (Richards, Platt, & Platt 1992; Vogt 1999).


16

1.4.1 Research Methods

There are some major types of research in the field of humanities. Below

you will find the description of each of these research types (Based on Long,

Convey, & Chwalek 1985).

Exercise One: Fill in the blanks with the words you find appropriate in each

case (the same word may be used more than once). The words you can choose

from are given before each definition. When you finish, check your answers

in the answer key at the end of this book.

1.4.1.1 Descriptive Research: It involves _________ data in order to answer

__________ or test ____________ about the current status of the situation under

study.

1.4.1.1.1 Survey Research typically employs ____________ or, in some cases,

________ to determine people’s opinions, attitudes, and perceptions about the

situation being studied. Survey research ordinarily uses __________ methods,

but ___________ methods may be necessary if the data are obtained from

interviews.

1.4.1.1.2 Observational Research determines the current status of a __________

by __________ it rather than simply asking about it. Observational research can

be broadly defined as ____________ observation or ____________ observation.

A case study is a type of observational research that ordinarily uses ___________

observation. In it, the researcher performs an in-depth ____________ of the

Questionnaires – Questions - Quantitative – Collecting – Qualitative - Hypotheses –

Interviews

Participant – Control – Non-participant – Observing – Situation - Investigation


17

situation but usually is not directly involved in the situation and does not

___________ or manipulate it.

1.4.1.1.3 Ethnographic Research is a type of observational research that usually

employs _____________ observation as a form of inquiry in which the researcher

is both an observer, and as such is responsible to persons outside the situation

being studied, and also a genuine __________, and as such has a stake in the

situation and its outcomes. Ethnographic research usually occurs in a _________

setting, that is, the researcher __________ and studies behavior as it normally

occurs. It involves the intensive examination of a situation in which data are

___________ on many __________ over an extended period of time. These data

may come from in-depth interviewing, field notes, diaries, thematic musings of

the ______________, chronologs (running accounts of behavior), context maps or

diagrams, schedules, taxonomies, _____________ (relational diagrams showing

who interacts with whom) questionnaires, rating scales, checklists, and audio or

video ___________. The analysis of the data is largely ______________, and it is

also more inductive.

1.4.1.2 Correlational Research: It involves collecting ___________ to

determine the existence of a _______________ between two or more variables

and to estimate the relationship’s ______________. The relationship is usually

described by a _____________ called the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation

Records - Collected – Sociometrics – Participant – Researcher – Qualitative –

Variables – Naturalistic - Recordings

Criterion - Extent – Selection - Number – Relationship – Linear – Predict - Data –

Magnitude – Predictors - Variables – Graphed – Statistic – Complex – Variable -


18

Coefficient. This __________, which is between –1.00 and 1.00, describes the

__________ of a ____________ relationship between two __________ –that is,

how closely the points represented by ordered pairs of individual scores on each

variable approximate a straight line when ____________ in a coordinate system.

Values of –1.00 and 1.00 indicate a perfect ________ relationship (inverse and

direct, respectively), while a value of .00 indicates no linear __________.

Correlational research studies are usually classified as relationship studies or

prediction studies.

1.4.1.2.1 Relationship Studies examine the association between measures of

different _________ obtained at approximately the same time. In addition to

investigating the ___________ between variables of interest, these studies often

try to obtain a better understanding of factors that make up a ___________

construct such as intelligence, self-concept, or school ability.

1.4.1.2.2 Prediction Studies involve the establishment of an equation that is used

to _________ future performance on some variable, called the dependent ______

or the criterion, from information obtained from other variables, called the

________ variables or the predictors. In addition to predicting performance on the

criterion, researchers often seek to identify which ____________ are more

important in explaining changes in the _____________. Prediction studies are

used to aid in the ________ or placement of individuals, to identify individuals to

perform certain tasks or to receive special services, etc.

Experimental error – Internal – Dependent – Representativeness - Experiment –

Experimental – Validity - Evidence – Essential – Researcher – Independent –

Differences – Instructional programs – Produce – Variable - Controlled


19

1.4.1.3 Experimental Research: It involves the examination of the effects of at

least one independent __________ on one or more ____________ variables while

other relevant variables are controlled. Direct manipulation of at least one

independent variable is the main characteristic that differentiates __________

research from other methods. When well conducted, experimental research

provides the strongest _________ for cause-and-effect relationships. Control of

extraneous variables is __________ in experimental research studies. The

____________ tries to remove the influence of any __________, other than the

___________ variables of interest, that might affect the dependent ___________.

Variables that typically need to be ____________ are those involving individual

___________ among subjects, such as ability or interest readiness, and

environmental variables, such as teachers or ___________ _____________ or

experiences. Such variables may ___________ unwanted differences between

experimental groups. Uncontrolled extraneous variables that affect performance

on the dependent variables increase the chances of ___________ __________ and

jeopardize the experiment’s __________.

A good research design maximizes both the ___________ validity and the

external validity of an ____________. Internal validity is the extent to which

changes in the dependent ____________ can be attributed to changes in an

___________ variable. External validity refers to the generalizability or

______________ of the findings.

1.4.1.4 Other Research Types

Test — Anticipating — Research —Purpose—Systematically — Understanding —

Past


20

1.4.1.4.1 Historical Research

In this type of ______________, the researcher _____________ collects data

about ____________ events in order to __________ hypotheses. The main

____________ underlying this type of research is ______________ the past and

present, and, if possible, _____________ the future. It is not very common in the

areas of TESOL/AL.

1.4.1.4.2 Causal-Comparative Research

This research type is similar to ______________ research in that it tries to

establish cause-and-effect relationships between ________________ of interest.

However, the difference is that no experiment is ________________ and no

variable is _______________. Here, the ________________is studied ex post

facto –that is, __________ the fact. In these studies, a _____________ of

individuals possessing the target variables are studied and ______________ to

another group of ______________ who do not ______________ the variables,

and some conclusions are drawn. Because of this characteristic, some authors

refer to causal-comparative research as, _________________ but it goes better as

a type of descriptive research.

1.4.1.4.3 Methodological Research

Group — Conducted — Causal-Comparative Research — Non-Experimental —

Compared — Manipulated — Experimental — Subjects — After — Possess —

Variables — Relationship

Instruments — Procedures — Measurement — Gathering — Described — Focuses


21

Although the underlying methodological _________________ may be one of the

types of research ________________ above, what makes a study methodological

is the fact that it _________________ on testing certain procedures for

_________________ data, designing or validating

research___________________, and investigating aspects of statistics,

_________________, and evaluation. In other words, the subjects of

methodological research are research methodologies!!

1.4.2 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Once the different research methods available for use have been shown, it

is important to draw a distinction between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research refers to those studies in which data are analyzed in terms

of numbers. That is, when you calculate percentages or statistics. In contrast,

qualitative research includes “Studies of subjects that are hard to quantify” (Vogt

1999). Thus, introspection, case studies, ethnographic studies, and surveys where

data is collected by interviews, are typical examples of qualitative research.

It is important to mention that no paradigm is inherently better than the

other. However, there are some preferences depending on the country and the

institution. American universities, for example, will encourage and value hardcore

quantitative research, whereas British universities seem to find qualitative

research more fulfilling, especially at the graduate level. Choice of

methodological paradigm will then depend on the institution requirements and on

the purposes of the research. Some studies lend themselves better for qualitative

research, and some others are rather hard to handle using percentages and

statistics.


22

Finally, it must be emphasized that the quantitative-qualitative distinction

does not refer to a dichotomy of mutually exclusive paradigms, but rather to the

fact that research methodologies can be arranged along a continuum between

qualitative and quantitative paradigms. Thus, on one end of the continuum we

will find introspection techniques, whereas experimental research is the epitome

of quantitative research. The qualitative-quantitative continuum of research

methodologies is illustrated in the figure on the next page, taken from Larsen-

Freeman & Long (1991).


23


24

1.4.3 Selecting Appropriate Research Methodology

Research methodology must be carefully selected according to the nature of

the study and the type of results that want to be obtained.

Exercise Two: Read the following situations and choose the method(s) you

would use in each case. Check the Answer Key!

1. You want to determine what are your students’ learning styles so that you

can teach them in the most appropriate way, according to how they learn

best.

2. You want to investigate why one of your learners seems to be learning more

slowly than the others, even when he’s getting the same amount of input as

his peers.

3. You are interested in finding out if students with low language learning

achievement belong to the lower social classes.

4. You want to know whether the teachers in your school consider the textbook

is appropriate for the learners and for the program.

5. You want to determine what types of questions teachers tend to ask in the

classroom, and then determine the influence of these questions on students’

participation.

6. You want to elicit and classify the types of written errors committed by

LEMO students at advanced level.

7. You want to determine what are learner background factors that have an

influence on their TOEFL scores.

8. You are interested in finding out whether teachers in LEMO beginning

classrooms use the target language for communicating with their students

and to what extent students also use it for actual communicative interaction.


25

9. You want to know what types of materials, activities, cartoon characters, etc.

you should use with your kindergarten children, so that you can teach then in

the most effective way.

1.4.4 Research Procedures in Second Language Acquisition

Besides the major research methods described above, there are some more

specific research procedures in SLA (Ellis 1994). These procedures have been

used extensively and could be useful for your particular research. Let’s explore

them in detail.

1.4.4.1 Error Analysis: Corder (1974)

a) Collection of a sample of learner language

b) Identification of errors

c) Description of errors

d) Explanation of errors

e) *Evaluation of errors

a) Sampling:

Massive sample

Specific sample

Incidental sample

Natural samples

Elicited samples

I. Clinical elicitation.

TYPE: Descriptive


26

II. Experimental methods of elicitation: Bilingual Syntax Measure

(Burt, Dulay and Hernández 1973).

The method of data collection can have a marked effect on the results obtained.

Cross-sectional samples

Longitudinal samples

b) Identification

• Norm?

• Errors and mistakes

• Overt and covert errors

• Correctness and appropriacy

c) Description of errors

• Description: Burt and Kiparsky (1972); Politzer and Ramírez (1973); Richards (1971b); Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982).

Description of errors can be very difficult and inaccurate.

d) Explanation: Source of error.

I. Psycholinguistic

II. Sociolinguistic

III. Epistemic

IV. Discourse structure

e) Evaluation of errors: Consideration of the effect of the error on the

interlocutors.

I. Comprehension:

II. Affective response:

• Addressees:

I. Native or Nonnative speakers

II. ‘Experts’ or ‘non experts’


27

1.4.4.2 Methods for Investigating Developmental Patterns

It replaced Error Analysis, once researchers acknowledged the need to

consider the entirety of learner language instead of looking at it as a collection of

errors. One of the most powerful ideas originated from the study of

developmental patterns is that learner language is systematic.

Developmental patterns

Order of acquisition

Sequence of acquisition

Study of developmental patterns has focused primarily on grammatical structures.

Methods:

1.4.4.2.1 Obligatory Occasion Analysis (Brown 1974)

a) Samples of naturally occurring language are collected.

b) Obligatory occasions for the use of specific TL features are identified in the

data.

c) The percentage of accurate use of the feature is then calculated by

establishing whether the feature in question has been supplied in all the

contexts in which it is required.

- A feature was considered to be acquired if it was supplied correctly 90%

of the times.

- Brown (1973) considered a feature to have been acquired if it was

performed at the 90% level on 3 consecutive data collection points.

-

Problem with this method: It did not account for the phenomena of avoidance

and oversuppliance.

TYPE: Descriptive


28

1.4.4.2.2 Target-Like Use Analysis (Pica 1983).

1. Samples of naturally occurring language are collected.

2. Obligatory contexts for use and non use of the feature are established.

3. Percentages of accuracy are estimated.

Drawbacks of both Obligatory Occasion Analysis and Target-Like Use

Analysis: Both are target-language based, that is, they compare learner

language to the L2.

Bley-Vroman (1983): The “Comparative Fallacy”.

1.4.4.2.3 Frequency Analysis (Cazden et al. 1975)

1. Catalogue the various linguistic devices that learners use to express a

particular grammatical structure (such as interrogation).

2. Calculate the frequency with which each device is used at different points

in the learners’ development.

Since it allows to observe ‘vertical variation’ in learners development (how

different structures become prominent at different stages), frequency analysis

is one of the best ways of examining sequences of acquisition.

Many of the studies were longitudinal in design (case studies in the 60s and

70s).

There were also some cross-sectional studies. In these, researchers argued that

the accuracy in which different features were performed corresponded to their

order of acquisition.

The existence of developmental patterns can be investigated in different areas

of language: linguistic (phonological, lexical, and grammatical), semantic, and

pragmatic.


29

Research in this area has focused mainly on the acquisition of grammatical

structures.

1.4.4.3 Research Methods for Studying Illocutionary Acts in Learner

Language

Ideally, the study of illocutionary acts should involve the collection of three sets

of data:

1) Samples of illocutionary acts performed in the target language by L2 learners.

2) Samples performed by native speakers of the target language.

3) Samples of the same illocutionary act performed by the learners in their L1.

Kasper and Dahl (1991) distinguish data collection methods according to the

modality of data elicited:

1) Perception/comprehension/intuition.

a) Questionnaires.

b) Observational performance data.

2) Production.

a) Discourse completion tasks.

b) Role play.

c) Naturally occurring speech.

And the degree of control over learners’ production:

1) Elicited.

2) Observational.

The most successful studies have employed a combination of data types.

TYPE: Descriptive


30

1.4.4.4 Methods for Investigating Input and Interaction

1) Data collection.

After collecting your data, you can follow different research methods, according

to your interests:

a) Linguistic Analysis (Descriptive).

b) Discourse analysis (Ethnographic, descriptive)

c) Conversational analysis (Ethnographic, descriptive)

d) Experimental method.

e) Pseudo-experimental method.

f) Introspective techniques (Ethnographic).

1.5 Narrowing Down Your Topic

Now that we have explored the different research methods that you can use,

it is time for you to select the research method that better suits the nature of your

study and its purposes. Decide what specific aspect of the topic you will focus on,

and think of:

Specific questions you will try to answer.

The assumptions and theoretical framework that provide the context for those

questions.

The hypotheses you are interested in testing and the method you will use to

test them.

The procedures you should follow to narrow down your topic are described

below.

First of all, decide on the research method that you will use. In other words,

Learning strategies, pragmatic interference, and all kinds of topics can be seen

and researched from different perspectives, according to what we are


31

interested in. For example, if our topic is learning strategies, we could use

descriptive, correlational or experimental research. Descriptive survey

research could help us find out opinions, perceptions and attitudes about

learning strategies. Correlational research can tell us whether learning

strategies seem to be related to learning effectiveness, and experimental

research can help us measure the effects of learning strategies on achievement

in a controlled environment. Choice of research method is a personal decision,

and it totally depends on what we are interested in doing. On the other hand,

this is the most important part of the thesis, since it determines whether your

study is valid or not as research.

Write a specific problem statement.

Construct a theoretical framework for your study.

Formulate research questions and hypotheses.

Identify the assumptions upon which the study will be based, and their

plausibility.

Congratulations! Now you have a thesis topic, and it is time to decide whether

this is a good topic or not. This is a difficult decision, because after choosing a

topic, it is very difficult to even think of giving up on it. However, some topics

may be impossible or very difficult to research, and it is better to know it from the

beginning. The criteria given below of what constitutes a good topic might help

you in deciding if yours is a good topic. As you read each question, reflect on

your topic and answer it to the best of your knowledge... good luck!

1.6 Evaluating the Topic: Is Yours a Good Topic?

Once you have selected your topic, you need to evaluate it. What is a good

topic for a thesis? The following criteria may be helpful.


32

What is a good topic??

Find it out by answering the questions below!

Is your topic directly related to our field of study? Or is it cross-disciplinary?

Do you have a sound base knowledge about this topic? Do you master its basic

concepts?

Is the topic relevant and applicable to the field?

Is the topic interesting?

Is the topic feasible?

Is the topic original?

Do you have an idea of the kind of bibliographic resources you will need for

your research? Are they readily available?

Do you know any professors in the staff who can help you and guide you in

your research?

Do you have a clear idea of the procedures you will need to carry out to

develop your project (i.e. the instrument you will use to collect your data, the

type of analyses you will follow to interpret your results)?

Based on the instrument you intend to use, will you have access to the subjects

or institutions you intend to develop your research in?

Will your research be extensive enough as to cover the institution thesis

requirements? Or will it be too short or too long?

If most of your answers are ‘YES’, your topic is a good one; if not, you really

need to consider changing it.


35

CHAPTER TWO:

WRITING THE INTRODUCTION

Parts of the Thesis

Content of the Introductory Chapter

Explanation of Key Elements in the Introduction

Rhetoric and Formulas

Sample Introductions


37

CHAPTER THREE:

ACADEMIC WRITING, COMPUTER SKILLS, AND

FORMAT

Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis

Editing the Paper

Using the Computer

Formatting Your Paper


39

In this chapter we will look at some important points regarding academic

writing, editing the paper, using the computer, and formatting the thesis. The first

thing we need to consider is the nature of academic writing.

3.1 Academic Writing: Things to Consider When Writing the Thesis

As you know, a thesis is a piece of academic writing that must comply with

certain professional and stylistic conventions. In this section, we will learn about

the most important characteristics of academic writing.

3.1.1 Formal Grammar and Style (Adapted from Swales & Feak 1994)

1. Avoid contractions

a) Learners with low motivation won’t acquire the language as effectively as

highly motivated learners.

b) Learners with low motivation will not acquire the language as effectively as

highly motivated learners.

2. Use the more appropriate formal negative forms

Not... any no

Not... much little

Not...many few

a) The analysis did not yield any new results.

b) The analysis yielded no new results.

a) Professors do not earn much money, and this is reflected on their motivation.

b) Professors earn little money, and this is reflected on their motivation.

a) This problem does not have many viable solutions.

b) This problem has few viable solutions.


40

3. Limit the use of run on expressions, such as “etc.”, “and so forth”

a) The Silent Way method implies the use of color charts, rods, etc.

b) The Silent Way method implies the use of color charts, rods, and similar

materials to illustrate and teach pronunciation.

4. Avoid addressing the reader as “you”

a) You can see the results in Table 1.

b) The results can be seen in Table 1 or Table 1 below shows these results.

5. Limit the use of direct questions

a) What can be done to lower costs?

b) This section presents some procedures that can be used to lower costs. Or

c) It is now important to consider what can be done to lower costs.

6. Place adverbs within the verb.

a) Then the solution can be discarded.

b) The solution can then be discarded.

a) Anxiety can be reduced gradually.

b) Anxiety can be gradually reduced.

3.1.2 Latinate versus Phrasal Verbs

Another important characteristic of academic writing is that Latinate verbs (verbs

derived from Latin) are preferred since they are felt to be more academic. Phrasal

verbs, in turn, are more common in informal writing or in spoken English. Thus,

we Spanish speakers are at an advantage, for Latinate verbs are usually cognates.

The following exercise was adapted from Swales and Feak (1994). First, look at


41

the verbs in the box and then change the phrasal verbs in the sentences to make

them more academic.

Exercise Five: Choose a verb from the box that reduces the informality of

each sentence. You may need to add tense (Adapted from Swales and Feak

1994).

1. Visual aids can help out the teacher in the demonstration of new vocabulary.

_________________________________________________________________

2. This new teacher organization was set up to facilitate professional

development.

_________________________________________________________________

3. With this new methodology, students’ grades have gone up to a 60%.

_________________________________________________________________

4. Some authors believe that cutting down the number of errors committed by

students is counterproductive: The more errors a student make, the more

he/she will learn.

_________________________________________________________________

5. This research tries to find out the impact of visual aids on the acquisition of

vocabulary.

_________________________________________________________________

6. Even though teachers plan very carefully their lessons and provide complete

and detailed explanations, they will never get rid of linguistic errors in learner

production.

_________________________________________________________________

7. This research will look into the problem of low motivation in the high school

classroom.

_________________________________________________________________

Assist Reduce Create Raise Investigate

Establish Increase Determine Eliminate Fluctuate


42

8. This issue of interlanguage was brought up to explain the uniqueness of

learner linguistic systems.

_________________________________________________________________

9. Even with limited professional training, some English teachers come up with

very effective materials and activities.

_________________________________________________________________

10. Interest in language errors has been going up and down in the last few years.

_________________________________________________________________

3.1.3 Verbosity and Wordiness

Finally, remember that the academic English tends to be direct and concise.

Avoid long and complex sentences, unnecessary details or words, and edit your

paper to see if you can say the same things in fewer words. Wordiness is

considered poor style in English-speaking universities!

3.2 Editing the Paper

Without a doubt, editing is a crucial process in the development of a thesis

or any other piece of writing. You always have to go back to your drafts and

revise the content, grammar, spelling, and style. Once you have made sure the

content of your paper is acceptable, the next step is editing for grammar and style.

3.2.1 Editing for Grammar

Grammar should be one of the easiest things to correct, and it is not

actually a very important one (content is number one!!), since computers already

have a grammar and spelling checker that will help you correct your paper. Also,

you will have two thesis readers in your committee, and one of them will check

your grammar. However, just to make things easier and help you develop a


43

readable paper, we will review some of the most basic grammar points at the

sentence and paragraph level... ready?

The Sentence and the Paragraph

(Checklist developed from REA’s Handbook of English Grammar, Style, and

Writing)

3.2.1.1 The Sentence

First read all the sentences in your paper, then edit them following the checklist

below.

Do your sentences make sense?

Are they grammatically complete and convey all the necessary information?

Are the beginnings and ends of sentences indicated with appropriate

punctuation or are there any run-on or rambling sentences?

Is your sentence order appropriate? Is the sentence clear and concise, or is it

confusing and long?

Are there any dangling participles or misplaced modifiers that might cause

confusion?

Is it clear, in all cases, what the different pronouns refer to, or are there any

ambiguous pronouns?

Are your structures parallel?

Are your sentences complete, or are there any fragments?

Are your sentences varied in length or are they too short or too long?

Does every word convey meaning and is necessary for understanding, or are

you using too many words?


44

3.2.1.2 The Paragraph

Now read every individual paragraph and check for cohesion and coherence.

Follow the checklist below and edit as required.

Are your sentences logically connected to each other? Does your text ‘flow’

easily and nicely?

Are your paragraphs too short (one-liners) or too long (one-pagers)?

Does every paragraph contain one topic sentence? Is it at the beginning of the

paragraph?

Does the topic sentence give a clear and concise idea of what the whole

paragraph is about?

Does the reminder or body of the paragraph (the rest of the sentences) clearly

and completely prove the thesis statement in the topic sentence? Does it give

enough information about this topic (only)?

Are your paragraphs unified, focused on one topic only? Or are there any

digressions (when you talk about some other, unrelated topics).

Are your paragraphs coherent? In other words, are the sentences therein

logically arranged and connected? Is every paragraph logically connected to

the previous one?

Is your text coherent? In other words, are the transitions between ideas and

subjects smooth and logical? Or are they confusing?

Do your paragraphs clearly and unequivocally reflect your point of view on the

topic? Are all paragraphs consistent with this point of view?

Does every paragraph display a formal, academic tone, or do you become

rather colloquial at times? Are you using the BIG, technical, appropriate

words?


45

Well done! Now just remember that editing is a continuous, recurrent process that

makes the difference between poor and good writing.


46

CHAPTER FOUR:

WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW

Content and Function of the Literature Review

Starting the Literature Review from an Outline

American Psychological Association (APA) Style

Developing the Outline


49

4.1 Content and Function of the Literature Review

The main function of the Literature Review is to present the theoretical

framework of your study, based on the information that you have collected about

your problem. You need to write about:

Specific theories related to the problem.

What is known about the problem from other empirical studies.

Important variables and how they relate to the problem.

What needs to be done to advance knowledge concerning the problem.

As you can see, this is a very important chapter because here you demonstrate

your knowledge of the topic, and discuss its main issues. It is important that you

analyze the topic from all different possible points of view. How can you get all

this information, though? It may be easier to start from an outline.

4.2 Starting the Literature Review from an Outline

In order for you to be able to collect and organize all the information necessary,

you can start from this outline:

I. Specific concepts and theories related to the problem (you may need more

space!). ___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________


50

II. Important variables and how they relate to the problem (you may need

more space!)

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

III. Your point of view about the topic (the points that you want to make!)

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

IV. Different authors’ points of view about the topic (either supporting or

refuting your points of view)

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________


51

V. What is known about the problem from other empirical studies (i.e.

results of research, also supporting or refuting your points of view).

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________________

Once you have come up with a list of items for the different sections of

your literature review, get one of those large checked notebooks and organize

your literature review there. First of all, divide every page in three columns,

horizontally. Then label each column as: 1) Point to develop, 2) Information

from sources, and 3) My point of view. Then, using your preliminary list of

references, get copies of all the materials that you need, using the information

given in Chapter One of this book. Put all of your copies together in a big binder,

that will be your thesis bible. Then fill out the information into the different

sections. The division of the notebook should be as shown below.

POINT TO DEVELOP

(concepts from outline)

NOTES FROM BOOKS MY POINT OF VIEW

2.1 Defining Reading

According to Nunan (1989),

reading is “…..

Reading is a very important and

difficult language skill


52

4.3 American Psychological Association (APA) Style

Before you develop your outline, you should be aware that you must cite

references in the body of your paper and in your list of references using the APA

Style. Now, what is that? In case you have never used it before or even heard

about it, let’s review it together.

The term “APA style” refers to a standardized way of citing references in

your text and in the list of references at the end of your thesis. The most

important consideration is that there must be a one-to-one correspondence

between the references in your text and those in your list of references: If a book

is cited in the text, it should be in the list of references; and if a book is in the list

of references, it should be cited somewhere in the text. The most common ways

of citing references will be described below. For others, refer to the Publication

Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th

Ed).

4.3.1 Citing References in Your Text

The main advantage of APA style over others is that it makes footnotes

unnecessary. There are two ways to cite references in the body of your text.

First, the author’s name may be part of your sentence, as in the following

examples:

A typical finding about the families of mildly retarded children was

reported by Richardson (1981), who administered group IQ tests to all

youngsters’ ages 7 to 9 in a major city in Scotland.

Scott and Karan (1987) described three levels of prevention of mental

retardation: Primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Note that the date of publication appears in parentheses and all the authors

of a given study are listed in the order in which their names appear on the


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publication. Also, only last names are used. Do NOT write the authors’ full

names or initials.

Second, the authors’ names may not be part of your sentence, but are cited

to support a given point you are making. Look at the two examples below.

Executive function is another key factor in the poor performance of

children who are mentally retarded (Baumeister & Brooks, 1981;

Borkowski & Day, 1987; Sternberg, 1982).

At one time, many children with IQ scores of 75 who are adapting poorly to

school would have been placed in special programs for youngsters with

mental retardation; they are not being placed there today (Reschly, 1981).

Note that when more than one citation appears in parentheses, they are in

alphabetical order by the name of the first author when there are more than one.

Also, citations are separated by semi-colons (look at the first example).

After the first time you have cited one reference with multiple authors

(three or more) you may use et al. after the first author’s name. Here is an

example:

(First mention of the reference)

Learning disabled youngsters are substantially less proficient than their

nondisabled peers in computing the basic number facts of addition,

subtraction, and multiplication (Fleischner, Garnett, & Shepard, 1982).

(Second mention of the reference)

Fleishner et al. (1982) also reported a higher incidence of counting

strategies among third- and sixth-grade LD children than among normally

achieving math students when they solved 12 basic addition facts.


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4.3.2 Citing a Word Discussed in a Secondary Source

Present the secondary source in the reference list and cite the original work

with the secondary source in the text. For example, if a study by Margould

(1981) was cited in Tournaki (1990), in your text you should say:

Margould’s (1981) study (cited in Tournaki, 1990) reported that

underachieving students typically feel frustrated and dislike school

learning.

In your reference list at the end of your paper, you would list only

Tournaki’s article, not Margould’s.

4.3.3 Citations in the Reference List at the End of Your Paper

Citations in your reference list should be in alphabetical order by authors’

last name. Note that after the first line of the citation, all others are indented.

Also, note that if there are multiple authors, a comma follows each name and an

ampersand (&) precedes the last author. Only authors’ last names and initials are

used: Never give the author’s first names or any titles (e.g., Ph.D.). Also notice

that the publication year always appears in parentheses after the authors’ names.

Formats for a variety of citations from different sources are presented below.

4.3.3.1 Journal Article

Ackerman, P.T., Anhalt, J. M., & Dykman, R.A. (1986). Arithmetic

automatization failure in children with attention and reading disorders:

Associations and sequelae. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 222-232.

The authors’ names appear in the order in which they appear on the article.

The words in the article title are not capitalized (except the first word or the first

after a colon). The words in the journal name are capitalized and the journal

name is underlined, the volume number is underlined, but the pages are not. An


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alternative to underlining is using italics. The words “volume” and “pages” are

not used. The journal “number” such as in “volume 3”, “number 2” is not given,

unless each issue of the journal begins pagination with page sequentially so that,

when they are bound, they will function like a book. In the latter case, the

reference would appear as follows:

Becker, L.J., & Selingman, C. (1981). Welcome to the energy crisis. Journal of

Social Issues, 37(2), 1-7

4.3.3.2 Book

Wadsworth, B.J. (1978). Piaget in the classroom. New York: Longman.

Note once again that the author’s initials are used (not first or middle

names), followed by the publication year in parentheses. The book title is

underlined with only the first word capitalized. The publication location is

followed (after a colon) by the publisher.

4.3.3.3 Chapter in a Book

Ashcraft, M. H. (1987). Children’s knowledge of simple arithmetic: A

developmental model and simulation. In J. Bezanz, C. Brainerd, & R. Kail

(Eds.), Formal methods in developmental psychology (pp. 302-338). New

York: Apringer-Verlag.

Note that after the author and publication year, the chapter title (with only

the first word and the first word after a colon capitalized) is presented. Then, the

editors are listed, followed by the book title (underlined, first word only

capitalized), and pages or volume in parentheses (this time with the pp. or Vol.

Written). This is followed by the publication location and publisher.


56

4.3.3.4 ERIC Document

Gottfredson, L.S. (1980). How valid are occupational reinforce pattern scores?

Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University, Center for Social Organization

of Schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 182-465).

Note that after the author, year and title, the location and affiliation of the

author appears, followed by the ERIC Document Number in parentheses.

Well, you are now ready to use APA style in your theses. Always refer to

this guide when in doubt… go ahead and start taking notes for chapter II!

4.4 Developing The Outline

4.4.1 Structure of the Literature Review Paragraph

It is very easy to develop paragraphs for the review of literature from the

outline that you wrote. In fact, the structure of a paragraph in a literature review

is very simple... just look below!

Structure of a Paragraph in the Literature Review

A concept is introduced / A point is made (topic sentence)+ It is supported

with references or previous research results + More support is added + If there is

information refuting (contradicting) the point made, it is added + More negative

evidence is added, if there is + The different points of view are compared and

contrasted + A conclusion (restating the topic sentence) is drawn.

As you can see, writing a literature review is not brain surgery. All you

need to do is follow this structure. To further illustrate this, let’s look at some

examples.


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Read the following paragraphs and find the topic sentences. Analyze them

and try to find the structure above, underlining the different elements in the

structure with different colors. Determine to what extent they follow this

structure and state whether you see some differences. Note: This is an open

question, the answer is not in the answer key.

Paragraph One: Learning Styles

In this section of the literature review, a brief overview of the main factors

involved in second language acquisition and their influence on the process will be

presented. In the end, learning styles, the factor on which this thesis is focused,

will be explored in more detail. In an early attempt to identify such factors,

Altman (1980) mentioned age, sex, previous experience in language learning,

proficiency in the language, personality factors, language aptitude, attitudes and

motivation, general intelligence, sense modality preference, sociological

preference, cognitive styles, and learning strategies as some important learner

differences that have an impact on the process of second language acquisition. In

a later paper, Skehan (1989a), considered only four factors, three of which are

included in the previous author’s classification: language aptitude, motivation,

and language learning strategies. He added anxiety, and also considered

cognitive and affective factors that included some learning styles and personality.

All these factors can also be found in Larsen-Freeman & Long (1991). Finally,

these last two authors provided a more complete and extensive list of factors

impinging in the process of L2 acquisition, taking on from the classifications

made by Altman (1980) and Skehan (1989a). As can be seen, all three authors

consider learning styles (or cognitive styles) one of the factors that make a

difference in the process of language acquisition.


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Paragraph Two: Learning Styles

In order to understand best the importance of learning styles in the

language classroom, it is first important to provide a definition of what learning

styles are. Reid (1995) defines learning style as “an individual’s natural, habitual,

and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information

ands skills”. In a similar way, Brown (2000) states that every person has their

own natural way to perceive, transform, learn, and possess knowledge and

information in their environment. Using a more narrow concept, Larsen-Freeman

& Long (1991, p. 192) define ‘cognitive style’ as “the preferred way in which

learners process information or address a task”. Their definition is limited in that,

as will be seen when a classification of learning styles is given (Reid 1995), there

are learning styles which do not depend on cognitive processes. Finally, it is

important to mention that learning styles will not vary across teaching methods

and content areas, they will persist (Reid 1995 and 1998); and, even though they

develop gradually in children, they are supposed to be more or less permanent in

adults (Brown 2000). It can then be concluded that learning styles are the

somewhat permanent ways in which learners perceive, process, and understand

the information around them.

Paragraph Three: ESP

English language teaching has widely diversified in order to be able to

satisfy the demands of an ever-changing population of learners. Thus, since its

emergence 35 years ago, the field of ESP has grown considerably to extend to

domains such as science, medicine, law, and business (Hutchinson & Waters

1987, Robinson 1991, Swales 2000). These developments in ESP have grown

parallel to the increasing acknowledgment of the learners’ needs and wants as a


59

central part of curriculum development in general language teaching (Brindley

1984, Holliday 1994, Munby 1978, Nunan 1988, White 1988, Willis 1996,

Yalden 1985). It is now recognized that any language program will be only as

relevant as it fulfills the learners’ requirements within a wider social context.

Paragraph Four: Curriculum Design

The notions of curriculum and syllabus are crucial in the development of

this project, and it is then necessary to outline a definition of both. Richards,

Platt, & Platt (1992, p. 94) provide a most comprehensive definition of curriculum

as “an educational programme” that includes an educational purpose (“the end”),

some content, teaching procedures and learning experiences (“the means”), and

some evaluation mechanisms. In this view, curriculum includes everything

around a language program, from planning to implementing and evaluating.

Similarly, Nunan (1988a) defines curriculum as “an educational program”, which

consists of planning, implementation and evaluation. In a further definition, Allen

(1984, cited in Flinders & Thornton 1997) explains that curriculum is seen as a

general plan that “involves philosophical, social and administrative factors”, all of

which are included in an educational program. Finally, Candlin (1984, cited in

Reid, 1999) argues that curriculum is based on making general statements about

learning language, learning purpose and experience, evaluation and the

relationship between teachers and learners. In sum, curriculum can be seen as a

general educational program with some objectives, some pedagogical

philosophies, and some assessment and evaluation mechanisms. This is the

definition of curriculum that will be considered for the purposes of this research.


60

Comments about the organization of the paragraphs:

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4.4.2 Paragraph Writing Practice

Exercise Six: On the following pages, look at the two sample notes for the

literature review. Read the information carefully and develop each outline

into a paragraph. Remember to use the structure outlined above. When

you’re done, check with the answer key!


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CONCEPTS FROM

OUTLINE

NOTES FROM SOURCES MY POINT OF VIEW

2.4.3. The Relationship

between L1 Literate Skills

and L2 Writing

Cook’s study (1988) on

Spanish-speaking advanced

ESL students, which intended to

find evidence to support

Kaplan’s hypothesis of the

digressive patterns of rhetorical

organization found, instead, that

there was a correlation between

L1 and L2 writing.

De Jesus (1983) reported a

moderate correlation between

L1 and L2 writing ability,

concluding that L1 writing

proficiency is a fair predictor of

L2 writing proficiency.

In an impressive study with 14

adult Anglophone students of

French, Cumming, Rebuffort,

and Ladwell (1989a) found that

their subjects’ use of equivalent

proportions of higher-order

problem solving strategies while

writing summaries in both

languages seemed unrelated to

their L2 proficiency level

(beginning and intermediate).

Instead, literate expertise in the

mother tongue correlated with

the qualities of these

summaries.

If students read and write well

and often in their first

language, they can become

good writers in a second

language.


62

CONCEPTS FROM

OUTLINE

NOTES FROM SOURCES MY POINT OF VIEW

2.2 Defining Syllabus

“Description of the contents of a

course of instruction and the

order in which they are to be

taught” (Richards et al. 1992, p.

368).

Nunan (1988a): “syllabus is seen

as being concerned essentially

with the selection and grading of

content, while methodology is

concerned with the selection of

learning tasks and activities”.

Widdowson (1984, p. 26)

defines syllabus as a general plan

of activities that can be applied

in a class to facilitate the

learning process.

Yalden (1984, p. 14): syllabus is

considered as an instrument by

means of which the teacher can

achieve a degree of

accomplishment between needs

and social or individual actions

in the class.

A syllabus is useful because it

specifies the content of the

course to be taught


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Paragraph Five:

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Paragraph Six:

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4.4.3 Successfully Expressing One’s Point of View: Coherence

As stated above, one of the most important things in the literature review

has to do with having a point of view. The outline above will help you develop

and clearly state your main points, but you need much more than that. You need

to use words that express relationships between the information you provide. In

the same way, you need to manipulate the information so that it best expresses

your point of view towards the different concepts and theoretical models you are

presenting. These words are called logical connectors, and can be of great help in

the development of your literature review.

Swales and Feak (1994) provide the following list of connectors and their

meanings. The table was modified to show you the correct punctuation that

precedes and follows each one, and their place within the sentence. Look at the

table and see which of these connectors you know and have used. Look up the

unfamiliar ones in the dictionary, study their meaning, and practice writing some

sentences where you use them.


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4.4.3.1 Sentence Connectors

Table 1: Academic English Connectors and Their Meaning (Adapted from

Swales and Feak 1994) Subordinators Sentence

Connectors

Phrase Linkers

Addition Furthermore, …

In addition, …

Moreover, …

In addition to…, …

Adversative …, although

Although …, …

Even though…, …

Despite the fact that..

However, …

Nevertheless, …

Despite …, …

In spite of …, …

Cause and Effect …because…

Since…, …

…, since …

Therefore, …

As a result, …

Consequently, …

…, hence…

Thus, …

Because of…

Due to…

As a result of…

Clarification In other words, …

That is, …

i.e., …

Contrast While …, …

…, whereas …

In contrast, …

However, …

On the other hand, ...

Conversely, ...

Unlike ... , ...

Illustration For example, ...

For instance, ...

Intensification On the contrary, ...

As a matter of fact, ...

In fact, ...


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4.4.3.1.1 Uses of Connectors

Different points of view can be taken and different arguments can be built

from any given piece of information, depending on which part you emphasize and

which one you de-emphasize. This is a matter of deciding on your stance and

then using the appropriate logical connectors that express your position. Let’s

look at some examples from everyday language.

Information: John is very old and ugly, John is filthy rich.

No point of view: John is very old, ugly, and filthy rich.

Different points of view using connectors:

1. John is old and ugly. However, he is filthy rich

2. John is filthy rich. Nevertheless, he is old and ugly.

3. John is old and ugly. In addition to that, he is rich.

4. In spite of John’s age and ugliness, he is filthy rich, and consequently,

women love him.

5. Despite the fact that John is old and ugly, women love him because he is

filthy rich.

6. John has some qualities, for example, he is filthy rich. On the other hand, he

has the unwanted characteristics of being old and ugly.

7. While Peter is young and handsome, John is old and ugly. In fact, John’s

appearance is disgusting.

8. Unlike John, who is filthy rich, Peter is an abbreviated piece of nothing. As a

result, women prefer John.

9. John is filthy rich and, although he is old and ugly, women love him.

10. John is filthy rich, therefore/ in consequence , women love him.


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And so on... we could come up with endless examples looking at the information

from different points of view, but I think that it is not necessary because you got

the point, right? Now let’s work with some exercises related to actual theory.

4.4.3.1.2 Using Connectors to Express One’s Point of View of the Literature

In the following exercises, you will be asked to manipulate the information

as to express different points of view, using support from sources. Also, you will

use connectors that clearly reflect your point of view and the relationship between

separate pieces of information. Have fun!

Exercise Seven

Point to be made: To explain how language acquisition takes place.

Information from bibliography:

External factors the kind of input the learner is exposed to (Ellis 1994).

Internal factors individual learning styles, learning strategies, and motivation

(Ellis 1994).

Additional information: External factors are relevant. Ultimate success is

usually caused by internal factors.

Task: Use various logical connectors to put the information together in several

short sentences. Remember: you will not write paragraphs, just sentences

that express the point of view indicated.

a) Simply explain the factors that cause acquisition.

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b) Compare and contrast external and internal factors.

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c) Emphasize the role of external factors.

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d) Emphasize the role of internal factors.

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Exercise Eight

Point to be made: To explain the construct of writing ability.

Information from bibliography:


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Lexico-grammatical ability the ability to use correct structures and

vocabulary (Hadley 1993).

Cognitive ability the ability to self-consciously use linguistic and intellectual

resources (Bartholomae and Petrosky, 1986; Elbow, 1990; Nelson, 1991; Reid,

1993; Shaughnessy, 1977).

Discourse ability The ability to organize one’s ideas in a cohesive and

coherent manner (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992)

Sociolinguistic ability the ability to use language that is appropriate in a social

context (Scarcella and Oxford 1992)

Additional information: All these abilities seem to be inextricably linked.

Some people organize them into the broader concept of ‘communicative

competence’ (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992).

Task: Using connectors to express your point of view, write several paragraphs

where you take different positions.

a) Simply explain the components of the writing ability construct.

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b) Compare and contrast different abilities.

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c) Emphasize the importance of grammatical ability over cognitive ability.

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d) Emphasize the importance of cognitive ability over grammatical ability.

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e) Emphasize the importance of discourse and sociolinguistic ability.

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f) Explain the importance of all the elements and their relations.

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4.4.4 Some Practical Advice for the Review of Literature

4.4.4.1 Integrating Ideas from Sources

You must clearly distinguish between your own opinions, ideas, and words,

and those of others. Readers should always be able to know whether what

they’re reading is a citation or a quotation.

As citing somebody else’s work and using their concepts is the main

characteristic of the literature review, reported speech is used very often.

Below is a list of common verbs and expressions you can use to cite the

authors’ work (Swales & Feak 1994).

Verbs:

State Maintain Remark Propose

Observe Suggest Declare Define

Emphasize Comment Report Assert

Claim Contend Point out

argue Imply Explain

Phrases:

According to _________, … In the opinion of _________, …

__________expresses the view that… __________ holds the view that…

As _________states, … As reported by ________, …


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Expressions referring to previous research:

________’s study shows that … _______’s research suggests that…

_____’s results demonstrate that… __’s research provides evidence of

From ’__s results, it may follow that As shown in ___’s research, …

Finally, make sure that you organize your review of literature in a coherent

way. Revise your paragraphs for singleness of topic, cohesion, and coherence.

Similarly, make sure that there are clear links between the different sentences,

paragraphs, and sections of the literature review by providing logical

connectors. Some strategies to ensure coherence are the following:

1. Use a pronoun (this, that, these, those) in the first sentence of a paragraph to

refer back to the subject discussed in the last sentence of a preceding

paragraph.

2. Repeat a key word from the end of one paragraph to the beginning of the

next.

3. Repeat a key phrase from the end of one paragraph to the beginning of the

next.

4. Use a transitional expression at the beginning of a new paragraph.

5. Use synonyms as transitions.

4.4.4.2 Common Errors in the Review of Literature

The most common errors made in the literature review are show below:

Beware!

1. Failing to include all the theoretical background necessary for understanding

the topic.

2. Not having a point of view.

3. Failing to support one’s statements.


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4. Lots of quotations, and very long ones.

5. Plagiarism.

6. Errors in referencing sources (APA style).

4.4.4.3 Solutions to the Problems

1. Review the literature thoroughly and, in doubt, ask your thesis director if your

lit review is complete or you should add something else.

2. Make sure you develop you lit review from an outline where you clearly state

your point of view and the points you want to make. Also, make sure you use

connectors and transitions that accurately express your point of view. This

part will be dealt with separately.

3. Make sure you start from an outline, where you can relate your own statement

to other research results and points of view of other authors, so you can see

which statements have enough support and which ones are rather

unsustainable.

4. Make sure you use paraphrase. It will develop your understanding skills and

will tell the reader that you really understood what you read. Also, it gives

coherence to the whole chapter. A quote is usually distracting.

5. Make sure you always give references and not use the authors’ words as if

they were your own.

6. Refer to the APA style guide to make sure you’re doing it the right way!

4.4.4.4 Revising Literature Review Paragraphs

To better illustrate some of the common problems involved in writing

chapter two, some examples will be presented as an exercise to develop your

analytical capability. When you write your own paragraphs, follow the same

editing process.


77

Exercise Nine: Read carefully the paragraphs below and determine what

errors are being committed in each case. Then decide what must be done in

order to correct these errors. Check your answers in the Key.

1) There are many classifications of memory, such as: iconic, echoic,

kinesthetic, and the others which receive data from the five senses. Primarily,

considering memory as a place and considering the time that the information is

retained, scientists have used the terms: short-term memory. Short-term memory

is the stage in which the information is temporally stored (supposedly 20 seconds

or less). This information may then pass to the long-term memory. On the other

hand, long term memory is the “permanent” storage (supposedly more than 20

seconds) of the information which passed through the short-term memory.

Errors: ____________________________________________________________________

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2) As a matter of fact, the attention of language learning research has to be

focused on the “Conscious management of this two-way traffic” (Stevick;

1996:29) for applying and improving strategies.

Errors: ____________________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________________

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3) There are five essential steps in vocabulary learning. Brown & Payne’s

(1994) study (cited in Hatch & Brown, 1995) present a model with the following

steps: “(1) having sources for encountering new words, (2) getting a clear image,

either visual or auditory, or both, for the forms of the new words, (3) learning the

meaning of the words, (4) making a strong memory connection between the forms

and the meaning of the words, and (5) using words.”

Errors: ____________________________________________________________________

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4) The ESP is become more important for the business. As increasing

access to this international transactional world is gained, a number of factors have

emerged as being potentially relevant. First, Charles (1996) has convincingly

shown that a key factor for the resulting discourse is whether participants are

attempting to establish a new business relationship or merely consolidating a prior

one. Second, the mode of communication is also significant, as indeed we might

expect. Third, the primary power in the business is typically complementary to

that of the academic setting. Finally, national cultural values and expectations

add further variability in ways that are historically rich and subtle, salubriously


79

steering the readers away from facile stereotyping. In conclusion, the business

and the commerce is very important for to develop English classes.

Errors: ____________________________________________________________________

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You are now ready to develop your literature review! In doubt, remember

to do it in a systematic way, and always refer to APA style and to the paragraph

structure model given above. Good luck!