Theories of Social Work

S.RengasamyMadurai Institute of Social Work

Theories of Social Work

Social WorkersCelebrating Community –Honouring Diversity

Social Work is a practical job. It is about protecting people and changing their lives, notabout giving theoretical explanations of why they got into difficulties …

Social work is about social change at the individual as well as at community level.Change is complex, diversified and risk prone. To understand it, social worker needknowledge. imagination, comprehension & creativity….in short, a radical shift inunderstanding “Knowledge as process” as opposed to “Knowledge as product” isneeded.

But our understanding of social work (especially with the faculty and students of socialwork colleges in non metropolitan cities of India and students with low level mastery ofEnglish language) is frozen with the simple definition of social work ...it is the art andscience of helping the people to help themselves.

Compilation and interpretation of social work definition accessible to the students (PDMishra 1994) conveys a meaning that social work is a “helping” “assisting” „enabling”activity, which in turn suggests social work is seen as a benign and uncontentiousactivity, willingly accepted. This understanding fails to reflect the major transformationssocial work discipline has undergone as well as its global outlook. There is nothingwrong in simplifying a concept, but if it ignores the complexities associated with theconcept, that will end our further seeking.Whatever may be a definition of social work, it is normally based on certain perspectives and understanding of that perspective / theory will help us to appreciate that definition.

It is this clarity that normally make one to commit in his/ her professional responsibilities.

Definition of social work generally convey

What is the need of social work or Why Social work?

How social work is carried out?

To whom social work is going to serve? or characteristics of its cliens

To answer these questions one need to know why people are suffering. What is our responsibilities towards fellow human beings? How we gain knowledge about the human problems? What makes us perceive the human problems in a particular way? Why we subscribe to certain methods of solving problems? ….

Social workers need to answer these questions before addressing others problems. Theories & perspectives of social work may provide some answers to these questions

Why Social Work?Life means to face the demands of day to day life and realize the self. By life tasks we mean theresponses people make as they face the demands made upon them in various life situations, suchis growing up in a family, entering school or work, raising a family, earning their daily bread,working in the industry, problems relating to job or earning, facing illness, accidents and death.People are dependent on social systems to realize their aspirations and to cope with their life tasks.In order to realize their life tasks people have to interact with three kinds of resource systems inthe social environment

1. Informal or natural resource system consists of family, friends, neighbors, co workers, etc2. Formal resource system consists of membership in organizations, trade union organizations or

other socio cultural organizations3. Social resource system such as schools, hospitals, housing societies, police, banks etc

Why people are unable to obtain the resources, services or opportunities in the resource systems,they need to cope with their life tasks and realize their aspirations?1. A needed resource or service may be scarce or may not exist or may not provide appropriate

help to people who need it.2. People may not know the existence of a resource system or may be hesitant to turn it for help

for several reasons like distance, corruption, delay or poor quality etc3. The polices and procedures of the resource system may inhibit / prevent it access (eg. eligibility

criteria, gender, etc) 4. Several resource system may be working at cross purposes

The purpose of social work is to enable the people to use the social resources to meet their lifetasks

What do we mean by helping people to help themselves?1. Increased understanding of oneself or a situation.

2. Being able to make a decision

3. Being able to confirm a decision.

4. Being able to get a support for a decision.

5. Being able to change a situation

6. Adjusting to a situation that is not going to change

7. Being able to examine options and choosing one

8. Being able to discharge feelings

Compare self help with empowerment

Empowerment includes the following, or similar, capabilities:-

The ability to make decisions about personal/collective circumstances

The ability to access information and resources for decision-making

Ability to consider a range of options from which to choose (not just yes/no, either/or.)

Ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decision making

Having positive-thinking about the ability to make change

Ability to learn and access skills for improving personal/collective circumstance.

Ability to inform others’ perceptions though exchange, education and engagement.

Involving in the growth process and changes that is never ending and self-initiated

Increasing one's positive self-image and overcoming stigma

Increasing one's ability in discreet thinking to sort out right and wrong

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What is theory?It is important first to be clear what the term theory means in anacademic sense. Cottrell provides a useful general definition:

A theory is a set of ideas that helps to explain why somethinghappens or happened in a particular way, and to predict likelyoutcomes in the future. Theories are based on evidence andreasoning, but have not yet been conclusively proved.

Thompson‟s definition includes similar ideas:An attempt to explain…a framework for understanding…a setof ideas linked together to help us make sense of a particularissue.

Writing about social work theory, Beckett makes a connection withpractice:…a set of ideas or principles used to guide practice which aresufficiently coherent that they could if necessary be madeexplicit in a form which was open to challenge.

It will be useful if we understand the different types of theories taught and the logic as why are these theories imparted to the students.It may be logical to group these theories in broader categories

e.g. Theories of evolution,

Theories of personality (development) & learning theories,

Theories of social organization and social change, theories of

social stratification,

Theories of individual and group behavior,

Theories of deviance, crime and correction,

Theories of economic growth and development, theories of group

dynamics and leadership,

Theories of social work (clinical practice) etc.

Curriculum Development Centre in Social Work Education,

University Grants Commission, India recognized three elements of

social work curriculum

1. Values of the profession

2. Skills and methods that are developed for the professional task

3. Major theories and concepts

Objectives of teaching theories

1. Refinement of practice

2. Provision of changing theoretical inputs to the social work

knowledge base

3. Building up of new theories from the practice data

The centre has recommended to include many different theories

discretely and dispersaly but failed to do a wise selectivity of

appropriate theories to be taught rationally and coherently and

imparting knowledge of these theories compactly as an independent

course that are taught in other disciplines eg. Sociological Theories,

Modern Economic Theories, Contemporary Political Theories,

Psychological Theories

Thompson explains that there are different levels of theories.These are:

Grand, macro-level or global theories(sometimes known as meta-narratives), such as Marxism orPsychoanalysis, which claim to be able to explain everything insociety, or all human behavior;

Middle-range theories which focus on a limited range of issues– for instance, labeling theory, which from a social integrationistperspective aims to explain deviance;

Micro theories developed to explain very small-scale situations– for instance, relationships between staff and patients on ahospital ward.

The term theory is loosely used in social work

profession. The use of social work theories in

professional literature is rather ambiguous.

Concepts, frames of reference, practice

models and philosophical propositions have

been termed as theories.

How theories help social workers?

Social workers might use theory to understand andexplain three main aspects of social work

1. The task and purpose of social work – the roleof social work in society;

2. Practice theories: sometimes called socialwork approaches or methods – how to go aboutdoing social work;

3. The world of service users, including theinternal (psychological) world and the external(social) world

In social work, the term ‘theory’ covers three different

possibilities:

Provable explanations why something happens (Explanatory

Theory)

Organized description of activity in a structured form

(Models)

Ways of conceptualizing the world or a particular subject

(Perspective)

Conceptual Frameworks

Theories OF Social Work Theories FOR Social Work

Orienting Theories Practice Frameworks

Practice Perspectives Practice Theories Practice Models

Theories of social work

Focus on the profession and explain its purpose, domain, and character within the society. They describe what the profession is all about and why it functions as it does.Theories for social work

Focus on clients and helping activities. They explain human behaviours, the social environment, how change occurs and how change can be facilitated by the social worker in order to benefit

Orienting TheoriesOrienting theories describe and explain behaviour and how and why certain problems develop.They provide important background knowledge and are usually borrowed from other disciplines such as biology, psychology, sociology, economics, cultural anthropology, and the like. Examplesinclude the various theories related to human development, personality, family systems, socialization,organizational functioning, and political power, as well as theories related to specific types of problemssuch as poverty, family violence, mental illness, teen pregnancy, crime and racial discrimination.

Practice Perspective This is a particular way of viewing and thinking about practice. It is a conceptual lens through which one views social functioning and it offers very broad guidance on what may be important considerations in a practice situation. Like a camera lens, a perspective serves to focus on or magnify a particular feature. Two perspectives, the general systems perspective and the ecosystems perspective, are commonly used in assessing relationships between people and their environment.

Practice Theory It offers both an explanation of certain behaviours or situations and guidance on how they can be changed. A practice theory serves as a road map for bringing about a certain type of change. Most practice theories are rooted in one or more orienting theories. An example is psychosocial therapy, which is based primarily on psychodynamic theory and ego psychology. Another is behaviour therapy, which is derived from the psychology of learning

Practice Model Practice Model is a set of concepts and principles used to guide intervention activities. The term model is also used when referring to a conceptual framework that is borrowed from one field and applied in another, for example, the medical model (study, diagnose, treat) and the legal model (an approach to social action and client advocacy, involving competition and conflict among adversaries).

Practice Frameworks

Framework for Social Work Practice

Social work draws from many frameworks for practice, but some of these frameworks have had more influence on the profession of social work than others. The three influential frameworks are

The Ecosystem Perspective

This perspective focuses on the interplay between the person and his or her environment. To understand the functioning of the individual, we must understand his or her environmental context:

Individuals exist within familiesFamilies exist within communities and neighborhoodsIndividuals, families, and neighborhoods exist in a political, economic, and cultural environmentThe environment impacts the actions, beliefs, and choices of the individual

The Strengths Perspective

This perspective is built on the assumption that every individual, family, group and community has strengths and focusing on these strengths leads to growth and overcoming difficulties.

Under this perspective, clients are generally the best experts about what types of helping strategies will be effective or ineffective.

The Cultural Competence Perspective

This perspective is the understanding and approval of cultural distinctions, taking into account the beliefs, values, activities, and customs of distinctive population groups.

Many cultures have prescribed ways of talking about health and the human body and these factors impact a person's reaction and acceptance of health services.

These perspectives are consistent with a Family-Centered or Client-Centered approach, which is central to the standards of best practice with persons with disabilities and consistent with social work's central values and framework.

How might theory be of use to social workers?Social work, like all professions, uses theory to guide practice.

Observation: theory provides guidance on what a social workermight need to look out for when meeting people who use services orcarers and their families.

Description: theory provides a generally understood and sharedlanguage in which these observations can be organized and recorded.

Explanation: theory can suggest how different observationsmight be linked in a framework that explains them.

Prediction: theory can indicate what might happen in the future.

Intervention: theory can provide ideas about what might bringabout a change in the situation.

The importance of theory

Theory is important, in social work and social work education for a number of reasons because it:

Theory is the mark of a profession;

Theory can ensure accountability;

Theory can help avoid discrimination;

Theory provides a way of making sense of complexityand uncertainty

A clear theoretical perspective guides and influences social work practice in five key areas

Observation: it tells us what to see, what to look out for

Description: it provides a conceptual vocabulary and framework within which observations can be arranged and organized.

Explanation: it suggests how different observations might be linked and connected; it offers possible causal relationships between one event and another

Prediction: it indicates what might happen next

Intervention: it suggests things to do to bring about change

Why should Social Workers be concerned about theory?

What do we mean by theory in social work?Payne (1991: 52) helps us by distinguishing four types of theory

1. Theories about social work explain the nature and role of social work in

society

2. Theories of social work describe which activities constitute social work, set

aims for social work activities and explain why those activities are relevant

and effective in meeting the aims

3. Theories contributing to social work are the psychological, sociological and

other theories which explain or describe personal and social behaviour

and are used to make theories of social work systematic, related to general

social science explanations and to give supporting evidence for the social

work theory’s prescriptions

4. Theories of social work practice and method prescribe in detail how the

other theories so far outlined may be applied in the interaction between

workers and clients

Is social work a teachable practice? Or does it come from experience and creativity?

Some argue that Social work is less technical, more creative and intuitive. Both client and social worker are important when dealing with issues as the client is the expert of his own personal life. The ideal theory for social work would therefore be one that encourages deep thinking and questioning, one that respects the inherent dignity of the client and complexity of social problems... not one that categorizes

People believe that science can furnish means, but not ends. Methods but not goals. So, Social workers must achieve something other than technical proficiency, i.e. Understanding the human condition, not science.

Social workers use contextual knowledge. Synthesis of knowledge from many sources, including personal experience. Common sense and wisdom on the job

Social Work Theories

Behavioral Theories

B.F. SkinnerIvan Pavlov

Cognitive Theories

Alfred AdlerJean Piaget

Crisis TheoryKathleen Ell

B. Gilliland & R. James

L.G. & H. J. Parad

Ecological System TheoryUrie Bronfenbrenner Empowerment Theory

E. Cox & L. GutierrezJ. Lee, E. Canada,

P. Chatterjee & S.P. RobbinsFamily Life Cycle

Theory

Family Systems Strategic Therapy(Model)

Humanistic (Existential/Transpersonal)

Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers

Carl Jung

Object Relations TheoryMargaret Mahlen, Otto

Kernberg

Psychodynamic TheorySigmund Freud, Eric Erickson

Social-Cultural TheoryLev Vygotsky:

Thomas Scheff:

Solution Focused Therapy (Model)

Structural Family TherapyMurray Bowen, Virginia Satir

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Knowledge aboutDifferent

Theories regard toDifferent

Social Work Fields

ResearchMethodology

Raising Awarenessabout Life Long Learning (Professional /Personal Development)

Skills to Workwith Clients Learning aboutDifferent Theoretical Approaches

Recognition &Analyze ofSocial Processes

Knowledge from

other Disciplines

Professional Values

Knowledge &Understanding of Legal & administrationProcedures & Social CareInstitutions Functioning

Social Work PracticeEncounters pressing needNeeds personally leftRequires immediate action Focuses on interpersonal practice

Social Policy as theorySeeks cultural ChangeRequires social action Calla for long term strategyStress on strategic planning/analysis

Why do we need theories in social work?

The use of theories makes Social Workers feel more safe & competent in their practice, reduces feelings of helplessness & fear of unknown

For social workers theory is important because it teaches social workers how to perceive people through their resources, not to classify them according to their problems...it’s a shift from control to help.

In order to see the beauty of one theory, it’s important to learn about many theories. This is how we can prevent making an ideology out of one theory

The more social workers use theories, less they use intuition, and it makes social work practice more professional and efficient

Theory, together with intuition is a way to developpersonal style of professional practice...withouttheory, just with intuition, social workers would feel like a puppet on strings.

Major Theories – Used in Social Work Practice

Primary Perspectives

Current Social Work Practice Models

In brief, social work practice models are like recipes. They are step-by-step guidesfor client sessions. Perspectives represent what aspects of the session areemphasized or highlighted in a session (i.e. questions asked or time spent).Theories are overall explanations of the person-in-environment configuration.Theories help explain why the problem is occurring and where the most efficientintervention should take place.

SystemsTheory

PsychodynamicTheory

Social Learning Theory

Conflict Theory

Strengths Feminist Eco-Systems

ProblemSolving

Task-Centered

SolutionFocused

Narrative CognitiveBehavioral

Crisis

Types of theory

Theories explaining what social work is

Formal written accounts defining the nature and purposes of welfare (e.g. upon by practitioners for defining personal pathology, liberal reform, Marxist, feminist)

Moral, political, cultural values drawn upon by practitioners for defining ‘functions’ of social work

Theories explaining how to do social work

Formal written theories of practice (e.g. casework, family therapy, group work); applied deductively; general ideas may be applied to particular situations

Theories inductively derived from particular situations; can be tested to see if they apply to particular situations; also unwritten practice theories constructed from experience

Theories explaining the client world

Formal written social science theories and empirical data (e.g. on personality, (e.g. the marriage, the family, race, class, gender)

Practitioners’ use of experience and general cultural meanings (e.g. the family as an institution, normal behavior, good parenting)

TheoryA general statement about the real world whose essential truth can be supportedby evidence obtained through the scientific method. – Must explain in a provableway why something happens. Ex: Learning theory explains behavior on the basis ofwhat organisms have learned from the environment.

ModelIs a blueprint for action. It describes what happens in practice in a general way.Ex: The behavioral model (based on learning theory) gives specific guidelines to forhow to effect change. If a parent complains that his child is having difficulty stayingin his own bed at night and the parent has been allowing the child to sleep inhis/her bed( thereby reinforcing the child‟s difficulty) the practitioner would help theparent to extinguish the behavior by removing the reinforcement.

PerspectiveA way of perceiving the world flows from a value position. Note: The perspectivewill influence choice of theory and model. Note: Payne (1997) argues that socialwork theory succeeds best when it contains all three elements of perspective,theory and model.

Example: Men who batter their partnersTheory: Social learning theory – men learn their violent behavior in their family of origin,and from a culture that rewards anger and violence in men; cognitive theory – what mensay to themselves in situations of stress increases their anger and their propensity to beviolent. Model: Cognitive-behavioral Perspective: Feminist

Levels of Practice

Major Purposes, Outcomes, or Processes Associated with Levels of Social Work Practice

Individual & Group Empowerment

Through "self help," "mutual aid," and "conscientization" strategies individuals andgroups learn how to perceive and act upon the contradictions that exist in the social,political, and economic structures intrinsic to all societies.

Conflict Resolution

Efforts directed at reducing: (1) grievances between persons or groups; or, (2)asymmetric power relationships between members of more powerful and lesspowerful groups.

Institution-Building

Refers both to the process of "humanizing" existing social institutions and that ofestablishing new institutions that respond more effectively to new or emerg-ingsocial needs.

Community-Building

Through increased participation and "social animation" of the populace, the processthrough which community's realize the fullness of their social, political, andeconomic potential; the process through which communities respond more equitablyto the social and material needs of their populations.

Nation-Building

The process of working toward the integration of a nation's social, political,economic, and cultural institutions at all levels of political organization.

Region-Building

The process of working toward the integration of a geo-political region's social, political, economic, and cultural institutions at all levels of social organization.

World-Building The process of working toward the establishment of a new system of interna-tionalrelationships guided by the quest for world peace, increased social jus-tice, theuniversal satisfaction of basic human needs, and for the protection of the planet'sfragile eco-system.

Levels & Definitions of Social Economic Development Practice in Social Work

While considering a theory or theories, social workers also understand its limitations too:

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sRecognise that no single theory can explain everything: When a person engages in an action (or inaction) the reason for their behaviour can be rooted in a range of causes or motives.

Related to the first point, recognise that some theoretical approaches just don't work with some people. Applying Brief Solution Focused Therapy can be really effective with some people. For other people, it leaves them cold.

Always apply the value base to theory - much of the theory used in social care practice and social work is drawn from outside of the profession. Theory may have its roots in education, psychology or management. As such, it may not incorporate social work values and you should take responsibility for applying these

Never be intimidated by theory. You use it every day.

Why do we need to apply social work theory to practice?

Theories can help us to make sense of a situation.

Using theory, we can generate ideas about what is going on, why

things are as they are etc. For example the

information obtained as part of an assessment can

seem like a jumble of information - applying theory can help "make

sense" of the information.

In work with individuals, making use of the theories which may relate to their specific situation will give us more direction in our work with them.

Using theory can give an explanation about why an action resulted in a particular consequence. This can help us review and possibly change our practice in an attempt to make the consequences more effective.

It is clear then, that theory is important in

practice - both for work with service users and for social work to be

more valued in society.

Using theory can help to justify actions and explain practice to service users, carers and society in general. The aim is that this will lead to social work becoming more widely accountable and ultimately more respected.

Whilst individual social work theories have different

purposes, using all kinds of theory in our work offers us,

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The vast majority of Social Workers function within one of four basic models of practice: the Personal Social ServicesModel (PSSM); the Social Welfare Model (SWM), the Social Development Model (SDM), and the New World OrderModel (NWOM).

The Personal Social Services ModelThe Personal Social Services Model (PSSM) of social development practice seeks to extend to people everywhere a range of basic socialservices that are needed to either restore or enhance their capacity for social functioning. The model's primary goals are: 1) to provideremedial and preventive services to individuals, families, and groups whose optimal social functioning is either temporarily impaired or inter-rupted; and 2) to extend social protection to population groups that are threatened by exploitation or degradation. The PSSM also seeks toensure increased sensitivity and responsiveness on the part of human service providers to the special service needs of culturally diversepopulation groups.

The Social Welfare ModelThe Social Welfare Model (SWM) of social work (development) practice is rooted in comparative social policy and comparative socialresearch. The goals associated with the SWM include: 1) self help; 2) mutual aid; 3) humanitarianism; and 4) the establishment of effective,preferably universal, systems of formal social provision. The SWM also views developmental social welfare practice as part of the worldwidemovement that seek to promote social security and social justice for people everywhere

The Social Development ModelThe Social Development Model (SDM) has its origins in community organization and community development practice and does, therefore,promote the fullest possible participation of people in determining both the means and goals of social development. In doing so, the modelseeks to provide a framework for understanding the underlying causes of human degradation, powerlessness, and social inequality every-where in the world. The ultimate goal of the SDM, however, is to guide collective action toward the elimination of all forms of violence andsocial oppression.

The New World Order ModelThe New World Order Model (NWOM) of social development practice is closely associated with the writings of "visionary" economists, politicalscientists, legal scholars, and environmentalists (Brandt Commission, 1981). Major components of the NWOM are reflected in thefundamental social, political, and economic reforms in the existing international "order" that are being sought by the United Nations (UN,1990; UN/ESCAP, 1992b), the United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 1997), World Bank 1997) and other leading internationaldevelopment assistance organizations. Elements of the NWOM also have been described by social work theoreticians.The NWOM asserts that the most serious problems confronting humanity are rooted in the fundamental inequalities that exist in the presentworld "order," i.e., in the system of international social, political, and economic institutions that govern relationships between nations and,within nations, between groups of people. In promoting its social change objectives, the NWOM calls for the creation of a "new world order"based on: 1) recognition of and respect for the unity of life on earth; 2) the minimization of violence; 3) the satisfaction of basic humanneeds; 4) the primacy of human dignity; 5) the retention of diversity and pluralism; and 6) the need for universal participation in the processof attaining worldwide social transformation..

Theory of Human Behavior

Focus of Theory Main Concepts Regarding Human Behavior

SYSTEMS THEORY Includes: Ecological Systems [Systems Perspective] Includes: Family Systems [Systems Perspective]

How persons interact with their environment.

How the family system affects the individual and family functioning across the life-span

*Persons are in continual transaction with their environment *Systems are interrelated parts or subsystems constituting an ordered whole *Each subsystem impacts all other parts and whole system *Systems can have closed or open boundaries *Systems tend toward equilibrium

*Individual functioning shapes family functioning and family systems can create pathology within the individual

*Boundaries, roles, communication, family structure influence family functioning

BEHAVIORISM & SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Includes: Cognitive theory, Behavioral theory,

Social Learning theory [Social Behavioral perspective]

How individuals develop cognitive functioning and learn through acting on their environment

*Imitation & reaction to stimulation shape behavioral learning

*Knowledge is constructed through children physically and mentally acting on objects

*Intelligence is an evolutionary, biological adaptation to environment *Cognitive structures enable adaptation & organization

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY Includes: Classical psychodynamic theory,

Ego-psychology, Object-relations theory, Self-psychology [Psychodynamic Perspective]

How inner energies and external forces interact to impact emotional development

*Unconscious and conscious mental activity motivate human behavior *Ego functions mediate between individual and environment

*Ego defense mechanisms protect individuals from becoming overwhelmed by unacceptable impulses and threats

*Internalized experiences shape personality development and functioning

*Healing occurs through attention to transferences and the treatment relationship

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

[Developmental Perspective]

How internal & external forces shape life development, generally by life stages

*Human development occurs in defined & qualitatively different stages that are sequential & may be universal

*Individual stages of development include specific tasks to be completed & crises to be managed *Time & social context shape & individualize the meaning of life stages

TRANSPERSONAL THEORY

[Developmental Perspective; built upon Humanistic Perspective]

How the spiritual and religious aspects of human existence can be understood How spiritual

development builds upon and goes beyond bio-psychosocial development

*Focuses on meaning, connection, and purpose

*Some people achieve developmental level beyond the personal (ego-based) level into transpersonal (beyond self or ego) levels of consciousness and functioning.

*There is an inherent tendency to express innate potentials for love, creativity, and spirituality

*There is a difference between psychopathological phenomena and spiritual growth experiences

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY

[Rational Choice Perspective]

How persons minimize costs and maximize rewards through social exchange

*Antecedents, consequences, personal expectations, and interpretation shape and maintain behavior in the present *Self-interest determines social exchange *Unequal resources determine power inequities and reciprocity is essential *Six propositions:

--Success proposition --Stimulus proposition --Value proposition --Deprivation-satiation -- proposition --Aggression-approval proposition --Rationality proposition

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM

[Social Constructionist Perspective]

How socio cultural and historical contexts shape individuals and the creation of knowledge

How individuals create themselves

*All experience is subjective and human beings recreate themselves through an on-going, never static process

*Knowledge is created through an interplay of multiple social and historical forces

*Social interaction is grounded in language, customs, cultural and historical contexts

*All phenomenon, including the sciences, must be approached with doubt in order to understand how people construct reality *Humans are self-interpreting beings





SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM

[Social Constructionist Perspective]

How the “self” is influenced and shaped by social processes and the capacity to symbolize

*Human action is caused by complex interaction between and within individuals

*Dynamic social activities take place among persons and we act according to how we define our situation *We act in the present, not the past

*Individuals are actors on the stage and take on roles, interacting with the environment

CONFLICT THEORY

[Conflict Perspective]

How power structures & power disparities impact people‟s lives

*All societies perpetuate some forms of oppression & injustice and structural inequity *Power is unequally divided & some groups dominate others *Social order is based on manipulation and control by dominant groups

*Social change is driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting periods of stability *Life is characterized by conflict not consensus

CONTINGENCY THEORY

[Systems Perspective]

How individuals & groups gain power, access to resources, & control over their lives, often through collective action

*Groups are open, dynamic systems with both change and conflict present *Groups are stratified, with different and unequal levels of power and control *High discrimination and low privilege equals low opportunity *Oppression occurs when upward mobility is systematically denied *The social context must be critiqued and deconstructed *Assumptions for analyzing organizations: --there is no best way to manage organizations --there must be a match between the environment and internal resources --the design of the organization must fit with the environment