The Promise of Black Teachers' Success with Black Students

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H. Richard Milner, IVEducational Foundations, Summer-Fall 2006

H. Richard Milner, IV, is Betts Assistant Professor of Education and Human Development, Peabody College, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.

Inthisarticle,IdiscussAfricanAmerican1research-ers’perspectivesontheexperiences,impactandsuccessofBlackteacherswithBlackstudentsinpublicschools.Thisstudybuildsonanearlierstudythatfocusedspe-cificallyontheseresearchers’insightsabouttheimpactof the Brown versus the Topeka Board of EducationdecisiononBlackteachers,Blackstudents,andBlackcommunities(seeMilner&Howard,2004).Inthatwork,theinterviewedresearchersfocusedontheexperiencesandimpactofBlackteachersinimprovingthelearningopportunitiesofBlackstudents,bothpastandpresent.Inshort,basedonthatstudywithafocusonBrown,theresearcherswhoparticipatedinthestudypointedtoaneedfortherecruitmentandretentionofBlackteach-ersinpublicschoolstoimprovetheacademic,cultural,and social experiencesof all studentsbutparticularlyAfricanAmericanstudents. In this study, Iattempt tofocusonwhatweknowaboutsuccessfulBlackteachersofBlackstudentsto(a)contributetotheevergrowingliteratureaboutsuccessfulteachersofBlackstudentsforthebenefitofteachersfromvariousethnicbackgrounds;and(b)outlineseveralsalientsuppositionsthatmayhelp

The Promiseof Black Teachers’ Success

with Black Students

By H. Richard Milner, IV

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The Promise of Black Teachers’ Success with Black Students

usinadvancingtheresearchandtheoryaboutsuccessfulteachersofBlackstudents.Clearly,outliningsomeofthepracticesofBlackteachersandtheirsuccesswithBlackstudentscanbeinsightfulforallteachersinterestedinteachingBlackstudents. Forthepurposesofthisstudy,Ifocusspecificallyonthefollowingquestions:

• FromwhatfeaturesofsuccessfulBlackteachersandtheirteachingmightotherslearnandbenefit?and

• WhattypesofquestionsshouldweinvestigateandaddressinordertoimprovethelearningopportunitiesforBlackstudents?

ItiscriticaltonotethatitisnotmyintenttoengageinaformofwhatGay(2000)called“professionalracism”—

byunderscoringtheneedformoreteachersofcolor.TheneedformoreLatino,Asian,Native,andAfricanAmericanteachersinU.S.schoolsisunquestionable.But tomake improving theachievementof studentsof color contingentuponfulfillingthisneedisbasedonaveryfallaciousanddangerousassumption.Itpresumesthatmembershipinanethnicgroupisnecessaryorsufficienttoenableteacherstodoculturallycompetentpedagogy.ThisisasludicrousasassumingthatoneautomaticallyknowshowtoteachEnglishtootherssimplybecauseoneisanativespeaker...(p.205)

Engaginginthisprofessionalracismisnotmygoalormissioninthisarticle.IagreewithGayandbelieveherperspectivesherearoundthedangerinassumingthatBlackteachers,forinstance,carryalltheknowledge,skills,andcommitmentsnecessarytosuccessfullyteachAfricanAmericanstudents.Tothecontrary,thereisahugerangeofdiversityevenwithingroups,andwecannotoversimplifythecharacteristicsofanygroupofteachers.Ihaveobservedsomelessthansuccessfulandknowledgeable teachers fromvariousethnicbackgrounds, includingBlackteachers.Moreover,asGayexplained,

...knowledgeanduseoftheculturalheritages,experiences,andperspectivesofethnicgroups[ofstudents]inteachingarefarmoreimportanttoimprovingstudentachievementthansharedgroupmembership.Similarethnicitybetweenstudentsandteachersmaybepotentiallybeneficial,butitisnotaguaranteeofpedagogicaleffectiveness.(p.205)

Still,basedonthefindingsofmystudy,IwanttofocusonBlackteachers’experiencesandsuccessbothpreandpostdesegregationforinsightsabouthowallteacherscandeepenandbroadentheirknowledgeandunderstandingtobettermeettheneedsandsituationsofstudentsatpresent,particularlyamongBlackstudents.Inaddition,IhopetoencourageandinspireotherresearcherstocontinueinvestigatingwhatweknowaboutsuccessfulteachersofBlackstudents.Byoutliningseveralcentralsuppositionsthatemergedfromthisstudyandfromtheliterature,moreresearchisneededtobuildonwhatweknow(theoretically)andhowweknowit(empirically). Black teachers and their multiple roles, identities, and contributions havebeenthefocusofmanyresearcharticles,commentaries,andconceptualanalyses

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H. Richard Milner, IV

(Foster, 1997; Milner, 2003; Mitchell, 1998). The seminal work of MicheleFoster,JackieIrvine,andVanessaSiddle-Walker,forinstance,hashelpedshapethefieldforthestudyofandimplicationsforBlackteachersandtheirteaching.TheliteratureonBlackteachersandtheirteachingisconceptualizedinseveralimportantways:itspansthepre-desegregationeratothepresentandfocusesonP-12schoolsaswellashighereducation.TheresearchisclearthathavingmoreBlackteachersintheteachingforcecouldpotentiallyimproveawiderangeofsituationsandneedsofBlackstudents.However,wemustnotfocusexclusivelyontherecruitmentandretentionofBlackteachersinP-12classrooms.Rather,IarguethatunderstandingBlackteachersandBlackstudents’situationsandneedsarealsoimportanttoequipteachersfromvariousethnicbackgroundswiththeknowledgeandskillsnecessarytobecomesuccessfulteachersofBlackstudents.Inotherwords,whatteachereducationprogramsandteachersdountilmoreBlackteachersarerecruitedisperhapsjustasimportantasrecruitingteachersofcolorforpublicschoolclassrooms.Thus,whatcanwelearnaboutBlackteachersandtheirteachingofBlackstudentstobenefitallteachers,regardlessoftheirethnic,cultural,andracialbackground?

Black Teachers and their Teaching MuchhasbeenwrittenaboutBlackteachers,theirexperiences,theircurriculumdevelopment,andtheirteachinginpublicschoolclassrooms(Dixson,2002;Foster,1990,1997;Holmes,1990;Hudson&Holmes,1994;Irvine&Irvine,1983;King,1993;Milner&Howard,2004;Milner,2003;Monroe&Obidah,2004),andthisliteratureisnotlimitedtopublicschoolsbutalsohighlightsBlackteachers’experi-encesinhighereducation,namelyinteachereducationprograms(Baszile,2003;Ladson-Billings,1996;McGowan,2000;Milner,&Smithey,2003).Agee(2004)explainedthataBlackteacher“bringsadesiretoconstructauniqueidentityasateacher...she[orhe]negotiatesandrenegotiatesthatidentity”(p.749)tomeettheirobjectivesandtomeettheneedsandexpectationsoftheirstudents. hooks(1994)makesitexplicit thatBlackfemaleteacherscarrywiththemgenderedexperiencesandperspectivesthathavebeen(historically)silencedandmarginalized in thediscourses about teachingand learning.Although teachinghasoftenbeenviewedas‘women’swork,’Blackwomenteachersandtheirworld-viewshaveoftenbeenleftoutofthediscussions—evenwhenracewasthetopicofdiscussion(hooks,1994).Similarly,incollegesofeducationandparticularlypreserviceandinserviceprograms,theprogramsarelargelytailoredtomeettheneedsofWhitefemaleteachers(Gay,2000),andBlackteachersalongwithotherteachersofcolor(maleandfemale)areleftoutofthediscussion.Wherecurricularmaterialswereconcernedinherstudy,Agee(2004)explainedthat“theteachereducationtextsusedinthecoursemaderecommendationsforusingdiversetextsorteachingdiversestudentsbasedontheassumptionthatpreserviceteachersareWhite”(p.749).Still,Blackteachersoftenhavedistinctivegoals,missions,deci-sion-making,andpedagogicalstylesthatareimportanttounderstand.

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Inher analysesofvaluableAfricanAmerican teachersduring segregation,Siddle-Walker(2000)explained

consistentlyrememberedfortheirhighexpectationsforstudentsuccess,fortheirdedication,andfortheirdemandingteachingstyle,these[Black]teachersappeartohaveworkedwiththeassumptionthattheirjobwastobecertainthatchildrenlearnedthematerialpresented.(p.265-66)

Clearly,theseteachersworkedovertimetohelptheirAfricanAmericanstudentslearn;althoughtheseteacherswereteachingtheirstudentsduringsegregation,theywerealsopreparingtheirstudentsforaworldofintegration(Siddle-Walker,1996).Moreover,asTillman(2004)suggested,“theseteacherssawpotentialintheirBlackstudents,consideredthemtobeintelligent,andwerecommittedtotheirsuccess”(p.282).TherewassomethingauthenticabouttheseBlackteachers.Indeed,theysawtheirjobsandrolestoextendfarbeyondthehallwaysoftheschoolortheirclassroom.Theyhadamissiontoteachtheirstudentsbecausetheyrealizedtherisksandconsequencesinstorefortheirstudentsiftheydidnotteachthemandifthestudentsdidnotlearn.Anundereducatedandunder-preparedBlackstudent,duringatimewhensocietydidnotwantnorexpectthesestudentstosucceed,couldlikelyleadtodestruction(drugabuse,prison,orevendeath). PangandGibson(2001)maintained“Blackeducatorsarefarmorethanphysi-calrolemodels,andtheybringdiversefamilyhistories,valueorientations,andexperiencestostudentsintheclassroom,attributesoftennotfoundintextbooksor viewpoints often omitted” (p. 260-61). Thus, Black teachers, similar to all teachers, are texts themselves, but these teachers’ text pages are inundated with life experiences and histories of racism, sexism, and oppression, along with those of strength, perseverance, and success.Consequently,theseteachers’textsarerichandempowering—theyhavethepotentialtohelpstudentsunderstandtheworld(Freire,1998;Wink,2000)andtochangeit. However,asevidentfromtheliterature,theseAfricanAmericanteachersstilloftenfelt irrelevantandvoicelessinurban,rural,andsuburbancontexts—evenwhenthetopicofconversationwasmulticulturaleducation(see,Buendia,Gitlin,&Doumbia,2003;Ladson-Billings,1996;Milner&WoolfolkHoy,2003;Pang&Gibson,2001).TheseexperiencesareunfortunategiventheattritionrateofBlackteachersintheteachingforce.Blackteachersareleavingtheteachingprofessionandquickly(Hudson&Holmes,1994;Howard,2003). Preandpostdesegregation,Blackteachershavebeenabletodevelopandimple-mentoptimallearningopportunitiesforstudents—yetinthelargerschoolcontext,theywereoftenridiculedforbeingtooradicalorfornotbeing‘teamplayers.’Asevidentinmyownresearch(Milner,2003)andthisstudy,Blackteacherscanfeelisolatedandostracizedbecausetheyoftenofferedacounter-storyorcounter-narrative(Ladson-Billings&Tate,1995;Ladson-Billings,2004;Parker,1998;Solorzano,&Yosso,2001;Tate,1997)tothepervasiveviewsoftheirmostlyWhitecolleagues.Blackteachers’waysofconnectingwiththeirstudentsweresuccessful—yetoften

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inconsistentwiththeirnon-Blackcolleagues.Inshort,differentdoesnotnecessarilymeandeficient,wrong,ordeficit. BlackteacherscanhaveameaningfulimpactonBlackstudents’academicandsocialsuccessbecausetheyoftendeeplyunderstandBlackstudents’situationsandtheirneeds.Forinstance,Mitchell(1998),inherqualitativestudyofeightrecentlyretiredAfricanAmericanteachers,remindedusoftheinsightBlackteacherscanhave inhelpingusunderstand the important connectionsbetween theaffectivedomainandstudentbehavior.BuildingonlessonslearnedfromBlackteachers,Mitchellexplainedthatinorderforteacherstoestablishandtomaintainstudentmotivationandengagement, theyshouldbeawareof thestudents’feelingsandtheirsocialneeds.Students’feelingsandemotionsmatterinhowtheyexperienceeducation;Blackstudentsoftenbringasetofsituationsthathavebeengroundedinracism,inequity,andmisunderstanding(Milner,2002).Racismandinequitycanemergenotonlythroughtheirdailyinteractionsbutalsothroughinstitutionalandstructuralcircumstances. TheteachersinMitchell’sstudy“werecriticallyawareoftheexperiencesofthestudents,bothinandoutofschool,andofthecontextsshapingtheseexperi-ences”(p.105).Theteachersinthestudywereabletoconnectwiththestudentsintheurbanenvironmentsbecausetheyunderstoodthatthestudents’behaviors(whethergoodorbad)wereoftenaresultoftheiroutofschoolexperiences.Therewerereasonsbehindthestudents’behavioralchoices.InMitchell’swords,

…[Theteachers]recalledsituationsinwhichfactorsoutsideoftheschooladverselyaffectedstudents’behavior.Theydescribedstudentslistlessbecauseofhungerandsleepybecausetheyworkedatnightandonweekendstohelpsupportyoungersiblings.They described students easily distracted and sometimes belligerentbecauseofunstablelivingenvironments.(p.109)

Thus, these retired teachersunderstood the important connectionsbetween thestudents’homesituationsandschool,and theywereable tobuildonandlearnfromthoseoutofschoolexperiencesandsituationsintheirteaching.TheBlackteachersunderstoodthatmanyoftheirstudentsweredoingdrugs,livinginpoverty,andwereactingasadultsintheirhomesintermsofbringinginmoneytosupporttheirfamilies.However,theteachersdidnotusetheserealitiesasanescape.Theteachersstillputforththeeffortnecessaryteachandtoteachwell. Itiseasyforteacherstograntstudents“permissiontofail”(Ladson-Billings,2002) when they consider the complex and challenging lives of their studentsoutsideoftheclassroom.However,successfulteachersofBlackstudentsmaintainhighexpectationsfortheirstudents(Siddle-Walker,1996)anddonotpitythembutempathizewiththestudents(McAllister&Irvine,2002)sothatstudentshavethebestpossiblechanceofmobilizingthemselvesandempoweringtheirfamiliesandcommunities.Toexplain,teacherswhoarecommittedtoimprovingthelivesoftheirstudentsdonotacceptmediocrity,andtheyencourageandinsistthattheirstudentsreachtheirfullcapacity,mainlybecausetheseteachersunderstandthat

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allowingstudentsto‘justgetby’cansurelyleavethemintheircurrentsituationorevenworse.Thus,teacherscannotadoptapproachesthatdonotpushtheirstu-dents—highexpectations,asSiddle-Walker(1996)explained,arenecessarytohelpthestudentsemancipatethemselvesandtomovebeyondtheircurrentsituations.Irvine (1998)describedan interactionbetweena studentand teacherbelowbyborrowingJamesVasquez’notion,“warmdemanders,”adescriptionofteachersofcolor“whoprovideatough-minded,no-nonsense,structured,anddisciplinedclassroomenvironmentforkidswhomsocietyhaspsychologicallyandphysicallyabandoned”(p.56):

“That’senoughofyournonsense,Darius.Yourstorydoesnotmakesense.ItoldyoutimeandtimeagainthatyoumuststicktothethemeIgaveyou.Nowsitdown.”Darius,afirstgradertryingdesperatelytotellhisstory,proceedsslowlytohisseatwithhisheadhanginglow.(IreneWashington,anAfricanAmericanTeacherof23Years;FromJacquelineIrvine’s(1998)Warm Demanders)

AnoutsiderlisteningandobservingtheBlackteacher’stoneandexpectationsforDariusmayfrownupontheteacher’sapproach.However,thisteacher’sapproachisgroundedinahistoryandarealitythatissteepedincareforthestudent’sbestinterest.Inshort,theteacherunderstoodquitedeeplythenecessitytohelpDariuslearn.Sheunderstoodthenecessityto“talkthetalk.”ThereisasenseofurgencynotonlyforIreneto“teachherchildrenwellbuttosaveandprotectthemfromtheperilsofurbanstreetlife”(p.56).Indeed,BlackteachersoftenhaveacommitmenttoandadeepunderstandingofBlackstudentsandtheirsituationsandneedsbecausebothhistoricallyandpresentlytheseteachersexperienceandunderstandtheworldinwayssimilartotheirstudents.Inaddition,theteachershaveacommitmenttothestudentsbecausetheyhaveastakeintheAfricanAmericancommunity.Studentsoftendonotwanttolettheirteachersdownbecausetheteachersareconcernedforthestudents(Foster,1997),andthisconcernhasbeendescribedasothermothering(Collins,1991),andIwouldaddotherfathering.Thestudentssensethiscareoftheteachers,andthiscarepushesthemtodotheirbestintheteachers’classroom.

Method InanattempttounderstandsomeoftheimpactofBrownforBlackteachers,forBlackstudents,andforBlackcommunities,Iinvitedsixexperts(educationalresearchers)toparticipateinaninterview.Forthepurposesofthisstudy,Ifocusspecificallyontheseresearchers’perspectivesof theexperiencesandimpactofBlackteachers2toprovideinformationforotherteachers,teachersfromvariousethnicbackgrounds,onsuccessfulteachingofBlackstudentsandtothinkaboutaresearchagendathatpointstosomecentralsuppositionsforfuturestudy.ThesixexpertsthatIselectedandinvitedtoparticipateintheinterviewmetseveralcriteria:(a)theyhadengagedinresearchandwritingaboutBrown(andinsomecasestaughtcoursesthathighlightedBrownfromvariousperspectives);(b)theywereexpertsandresearcherswhohadbeenintheirrespectivefieldsofstudyfor

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longerthanfiveyears;and(c)theywerewillingtoparticipateintheinterviewandfollow-upinterviewsifnecessary.Ifounditnecessarytohaveconversationswithexpertsaroundthecountrywhohadstudiedtheseandsimilarissuestogettheirviewpointsatthe50-yearanniversaryofBrowninordertoassesswherewehavebeen,tothinkaboutwherewearepresently,andtochartaresearchagendaaboutwherewearegoing. Fromthesixinvitationsextended,threeexpertsagreedtoparticipateinthestudy.Iconductedthephoneinterviews,whichlastedapproximately45-minutestoanhour.Participantsinthestudywereaskedseveralquestions.Asthemesandissuesemergedthroughouttheinterviews,followupquestionswereposed.Thus,theseinterviewquestions(listedbelow)arenotexhaustive.Rather,theyrepresentthethrustofquestionsposed:(a)whathappenedtoBlackteachersaftertheBrowndecision(e.g.,morale,dedication,self-concept,andretention)?(b)WhatimpactmighttheBrowndecisionhaveonBlackteachersleavingtheprofession?(c)HowmightBrownhaveinfluencedtheeducationofBlackstudents?(d)Whyisitim-portanttohaveBlackteacherseducatingBlackstudents?(e)HowmightwethinkaboutincreasingthenumberofBlackteachersintheteachingprofession?(f)WhattypesofquestionsshouldweberesearchingandaddressingregardingtheBrowndecisionaroundBlackteachers,Blackstudents,andBlackcommunities?(g)Inotherwords,whereshouldwe(researchers,teachers,andpolicymakers)gofromhereinordertoreverse(Ford,1996)theunderachievementofBlackstudents?Finally,theexpertsweregiventheopportunitytoaddadditionalcommentsattheendoftheinterview.Interestingly,consistentfeaturesandcharacteristicsofsuccessfulteach-ingandteachersemergedintheinterviews,whichspoketothequestion:Whatcanwe(teachereducators,otherBlackteachers,andteachersingeneral)learnabouttheteachingofsuccessfulBlackteachersandtheirpracticethatcanbenefitothersintheprofession?

Analysis of Interviews Aninterpretiveperspective(Guba&Lincoln,1994)wasusedtoguidetheinterviewanalysesinthisstudy.Interviewsweretape-recordedandtranscribed.Uponreviewingtheinterviewtranscripts,themesemergedfromallthreetranscripts.Inseveralinstances,thethemesoverlapped,andIusedthemtoguidemuchofthediscussioninsubsequentsectionsofthisarticle.Asthemesemergedthroughouttheinterviews,Idevelopedcodingcategoriestobetterunderstandtheissuesandtoorganizethedata.Thesecategorieswerenamedconceptuallybutwere,ines-sence,themesthatwerestressedandpointedoutbytheparticipantstoguidefurtherinquiry.Theposingofinterviewquestionsfollowedaninductivecycle,whereabroadandgeneralquestionwasposedandexpertsweregiventheopportunitytoexpanduponthoseissuesbasedontheirperspectivesandknowledgebase.

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The Participants Participantone3(hereafterreferredtoasBarbara)isanendowedprofessorataresearchUniversity.Shehasbeeninthefieldofeducationforlongerthan20years.Participant two(hereafter referred toasVince) isa leadresearcher ina researchinstitute.Vincehasbeeninthefieldofeducationforsevenyears.Participantthree(hereafterreferredtoasPeggy)isaprofessorataresearchUniversitywhohasbeeninthefieldofeducationforlongerthan20years.Allthreeparticipantshavewrittenscholarlyarticlesand/orbookchaptersabouttheBrowndecision,Blackteachers,and/orBlackstudents.Moreover,intwocases,theresearchershavewrittenbooksthatfocus(insomeformandtosomeextent)ontheseimportantmatters.Thediscussionshiftsnowtorevealtheresearchers’perspectives,offeredintheinterviews.

Researchers’ Perspectives Inthissection,Idiscussseveralthemesthatemergedfromtheinterviewswiththe researchers: Black teachers’ importance and refocusing teacher education;roadblocks,barriers,androle-models;andculturallyinformedrelationships.

Black Teachers’ Importance and Refocusing Teacher Education Amongotherissues,onethemethatconsistentlyemergedamongtheinter-viewedresearcherswhenaskedabouttheeducationalexperiencesofBlackstudentsasrelatedtoBrownwasthatoftheneedformoreBlackteachers.TheparticipantsallstressedtheimportanceofhavingBlackteachersintheteachingprofession.Inaddition,theparticipantsalsostressedtheimportanceofrefocusinghowteachersareeducated.Toilluminate,theresearchersstressedtheimpactof,therelevanceof,andthepossibilitiesofhavingBlackteachersteachinginpublicschoolsforthebenefitofallstudentsandespeciallyBlackstudents.AllthreeexpertsreportedthegreatneedforanincreaseintheBlackteachingforce.Forinstance,BarbaraandVincestressedtheimportanceofrecruitingBlackteachers,particularlyforthebenefitofBlackstudents. ItisalsoimportanttonotethatBarbarastressedthatWhiteteachers[orteachersofanyethnicbackground]canbesuccessful teachersofBlackstudents.Barbara’sperspectiveisconsistentwiththatofotherresearchthatshowshowteachersfromanyethnicbackgroundcanbesuccessfulteachersofBlackstudents(Cooper,2003;Ladson-Billings,1994).However,BarbaraalsomadeitclearthatinorderformoremeaningfullearningtooccurwithBlackstudents,“we’regoingtohavetochangedramaticallythewaywetrainteachers.”Barbara’sattentiontothewaysinwhichweeducateBlackteacherssuggeststhatteachereducators,policymakers,principals,andteachersneedtofocusonmoreinnovativewaystoeducateteachersastheseteachersworktoprovidelearningopportunitiesforstudentsinP-12classrooms;thatis,wecannotfocusallourattentiononrecruitingBlackteachersbutmust(re)focusourattentiononhowteachersareeducatedsuchasbuildingonsuccessfulfeaturesandcharacteristicsofsuccessfulteachersfromanybackground,includingBlackteachers.

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WhiletheinterviewedresearcherspointedoutthatmanyBlackteachersserveasrolemodelsfortheirstudents,Barbaraexplainedthattherearetoomanybarri-ersandroadblockspresentthatpreventBlackteachersfromenteringtheteachingprofession.

Roadblocks, Barriers, and Role-Models Onone level,Vinceexplained thatBlackstudentsneed“to seeotherBlackteachers”inordertohaverolemodels.Hestatedthat,“Whatpeopleexperienceday-to-dayeffectuateshowtheyviewandvisionthepossibilityoftheirlives.”Pre-Brown,BlackstudentswentfromschoolswherealloftheirteachersandprincipalswereBlacktoschools(post-Brown)wheremost,ifnotall,oftheirteacherswereWhite.ThemagnitudeofBlackstudents’“nowbeingtaughtbyWhiteteachers”cannotbestressedenough,accordingtoVince.OnecanonlyimaginethequalityofinstructionthatBlackstudentsreceivedfromWhiteteachers,someofwhomwereopposedtotheverynotionofdesegregationandteachingBlackstudentsfromtheveryoutsetoftheBrowndecision.NewBlackteachersaswellasBlackstudentsseemedtolosetheirBlackteacherrolemodels.Consequently,Blackteachers,inlargemeasure,startedtoselectalternativefields.Whereas,historically,teaching,intheBlackcommunitywasperceivedasoneofthemostprestigiousprofessionsforBlacks(Foster,1997),theperceptionoftheteachingprofessionchangeswhenthis‘equilibrium’isimbalancedaccordingtoVince.BlackstudentsandnewBlackteachersneedtoseeexperienced,successfulBlackteachers.Toilluminate,inVince’swords:

…Ifstudentsaregrowingupinschoolsthattheydon’tseeBlackteachers,thattheydon’tseeBlackprincipalsorBlacksuperintendents,howthehellaretheygoingtoimaginethemselvesbeingone?

Rolemodelsarecriticalinhelpingstudentsdecideonaprofessionandinhelpingstudentsvisualizethepossibilitiesoftheirlife. Onanotherlevel,Barbarastressedthat

teachereducationprogramsandstatesaregoingtohavetoeliminateorre-envisionsomeofthebarriersandroadblocksthatkeepBlackteachersoutoftheprofession.Andmostofthem[barriersandroadblocks]comefromthestandardizedtestsofassessmentthatsummarilydeclarethattheseBlackcandidates,inteachereducation,aren’tworthyorcapableenoughtobecometeachers.

Importantly,thepushtorecruitandtoretaintalentedBlackteachersisframedbytheseteachers’abilitiestorelatetoandtoconnecttootherBlackstudents,so-cially,academically,pedagogically,andculturally.Barbaraexplained:

AndsoBlackteachersareimportanttohavenotbecausewewantthem[only]asrolemodels,butthat’simportant.Butthat’snottheonlyreasonwewant[andneedBlackteachers].Wewantthembecausetheyhaveawayofteaching[Black]kidsthatleadstoachievement.Theyknowhowtocomeupwithexamplesinthekids’livesthatmakethelessonscomealive,andthey[Blackstudents]retainthematerial.

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Inessence,bothBarbaraandVince stressed the importanceofBlack teachers’contributionsasrolemodesforBlackstudents.Further,BarbarapointedtosomecentralreasonsshebelievedmanycapableBlackteachersarenotmakingitintotheclassroom:roadblocksandbarriers(primarilystandardizedtests).Still,iftheresearchers have found that teachers from various ethnic backgrounds can besuccessfulteachersofBlackstudents,weneedtofurtherinvestigatetheextenttowhichteacherscanbecomerolemodelsandhowtheydevelopandprovidevividexamplestohelpBlackstudentslearn.Thus,successfulteachersofBlackstudentsactas role-modelsanddeveloppedagogicalstrategies thatbring lessons to lifethroughexamplesprovided. BarbaraandVinceconsistentlyreferencedtheimportanceofculturalconnec-tionsbetweenBlackteachersandtheirBlackstudentsasafundamentalreasontoincreasetheBlackteachingforce.Atthesametime,howdootherteachers(Black)andteachersfromvarious—different—ethnicbackgroundsdevelopthoseconnec-tionswiththeirBlackstudents?

Culturally Informed Relationships Inmanyinstances,thereareculturalinformedrelationshipsthatexistbetweenBlackteachersandBlackstudents.InadditiontoBlackteachers’havingtheabilitytoconstructmeaningfulinstructionalexampleswithBlackstudents,Peggypointedtotheconnectionsbetweenthehiddencurriculum(orwhatstudentslearnthroughtheimplicitnatureofteachingandlearning)andBlackteachers.Inotherwords,PeggystressedtheimportanceandbenefitsofBlackteachersteachingBlackstudentsbecausethereareinherent,unstated,lessonsthatemergeinclassroominteractionsthatshowupbetweenteachersandstudents.Forinstance,shestressedthat“culturalconnec-tions”areoftenprevalentinrelationshipswithBlackteachersandBlackstudents.TheseculturallyinformedrelationshipsallowBlackteacherstodevelopmeaningful,relevant(Ladson-Billings,1994)andresponsive(GayandKirkland,2003)curriculaandpedagogyinclassroomswithBlackstudents.Toelaborate,Peggystated,

Itcomesinsubtly[orthroughthehiddencurriculum];itcomesinthetalksthatthey[Blackteachers]hadwiththestudents.Itcomesupinclubactivities…sothehiddencurriculumwastoexplainwhatitmeanstobeBlackinAmerican,to[be]rolemodels…AndIwouldaddthisdeepunderstandingofculture.It’snotjustthatIhavehighexpectationsofyouand...believeinyourcapacitytoachieve,andthey’re[Blackteachers]willingtopushyou[Blackstudents].Theteachersalsohadanintuitiveunderstandingoftheculturebecausetheylivedit…I[theteacher]liveinthecommunity.Igotochurchinthecommunity.Youknow,inthissegregatedworld...

Peggy discussed how Black teachers often expressed and demonstrated “highexpectations,deepcareforBlackchildren,[and]beliefsintheir[Blackstudents’]capacitytosucceed.”TheseissueswereinherentintheimplicitcurriculumasPeggyexplained.Peggygoesontoexplainwhatshereferstoasthe“bottomline:”

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But the bottom line is that...teachers had the advantage of understanding thecultureandbeingapartofit[duringsegregation].Theydidn’thavetobetaughtit.We[Blackteachers]understoodit.Theyunderstoodyoudon’ttalkdowntoparents,okay?—Thatyoudon’ttreatpeoplenegatively.Imeantheyunderstoodthesethings,whereinafterdesegregation,we’restilltryingtofigureouthowtounderstandit.

Thus,theideaisthatBlackteachers,byvirtueoftheiroutofschoolinteractionsandtheirdeepculturalunderstandingofwhatitmeantandmeanstobeBlackinAmerica,oftenbroughtalevelofknowledgeandconnectednessintotheclassroomthatshowedupintheirteaching.BecauseBlackteachersofteninteractedwithBlackstudentsandparentsoutsideofschool(inthegrocerystores,andatchurch,forinstance)theyhadaninsider’sperspectiveonhowBlackstudentslivedandexperiencedlifeoutsideoftheclassroom,andtheywereabletousethisknowledgeandunderstandingintheclassroomwiththeirstudents—toprovideoptimallearningopportunitiesforstudents.Blackteacherswereequippedtobringculturalunderstandingandconnectionsintotheclassroom,partlybecauseofhowtheylivedtheirlivesoutsideoftheclassroom.Inessence,therewereculturallyinformedrelationshipsthatexistedintheclassroomsbetweenBlackteachersandBlackstudentsthatenabledsuccessforallinvolved.Weneedtoknowmoreabouthowteacherscanbuildculturalknowledgeandhowtheycanusethatknowledgeintheclassroom. Teachingandlearningextendedbeyondthewallsoftheschoolasteachersfoundthemselvessittingnexttotheparentsoftheirstudentsinchurch,forexample.InBarbara’swords,

ManyoftheBlackteacherswerealsoSundayschoolteachersatchurch.Theylivedinthecommunity.Andsotheylivedinthecommunityandwenttochurchwiththese[Black]kids;thesethingsallconnectedinsomeinterestingkindsofways…it’snotthebuilding,necessarily.It’snotthesupplies,butit’stherelationshipbetweenateacherandastudentthatisthecriticalpieceforBlackkids.Whenyoutakethatoutoftheequation,everythingelsefails.Itdoesn’tmatterhowfineofabuilding,orhownicethebooksare,you’vegottohaveaconfidentteacherwhoyourkidsalltrustandcarefor.Andiftheteacherdoesn’tlikethekids,itallfallsapart.

Therelationshipsthatexistedintheclassroomenabledsuccessforteachersandstudents alike. The researchers that I interviewed stressed the importance ofteachers’abilitytoestablishrelationshipswiththeirstudents,andtheybelievedthatteachersfromvariousbackgroundscandeveloptheserelationshipstobenefitBlackstudents. Thediscussionshiftstodiscuss,inmoredepth,someofthefindingsinthisstudy.Inparticular,IdiscussandconcludewithfeaturesofsuccessfulteachersofAfricanAmericanstudentsasIbelievethesefeaturesandcharacteristicscanserveasdatatoassistallteachersinteachingBlackstudentswell.Moreover,whatis-suesandperspectivesasoutlinedintheprevioussectionneedadditionalattentionthroughcarefulinquiry?

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Discussion and Conclusions Clearly,teachersfromanyethnicbackgroundcanbeeffectiveandsuccessfulteachersofBlackstudents(Cooper,2003;Gay,2000;Ladson-Billings,1994).AsGay (2000) stressed “the abilityof teachers tomake their instructionpersonallymeaningfulandculturallycongruentforstudentsaccountfortheirsuccess,nottheir[ethnic]identityper se”(p.205).However,muchcanbelearnedfromthewaysinwhichBlackteachershaveengagedandempoweredBlackstudents(bothpreandpostdesegregation).Again,oneofmygoalsinthisarticleistodiscusssomeofthepervasivestrategies,philosophiesandcharacteristicsofBlackteachersthatcanhelpteachers,anyteacher,becomemoreeffectiveandsuccessfulpedagoguesofBlackstudents.Asevidentinthisarticle,teacherscanprovidelearningenvironmentsthatfosterstudent learning,andmanyBlack teachers,historically,havesucceeded infosteringoptimallearningopportunitiesforstudents,especiallyforBlackstudents. Infigure1,IattempttooutlinesomeimportantfeaturesofsuccessfulBlackteachersofBlackstudents.Thefigurecouldproveusefulinatleasttwointerrelatedways:(1)thechartoutlinesasetofsuppositionsaroundpracticethatappearcentraltosuccessfulteachersofBlackstudents,andotherteachers—teachersfromanyethnicbackgroundcouldbenefitfromthelist;and(2)thechartprovidesalistofsuppositionsthatsurelyneedtobe(re)visited,(re)searched,and(re)investigated.Thatis,replicatestudiesandstudiesthatinvestigatethesuppositionscanpossiblyassistresearchers,teachers,policy-makers,andteachereducatorsastheyworkcollectivelytoimprovethelearningopportunitiesforBlackstudents.Itisimportanttonotethatthefeaturesinfigure1emergedfrompastandcurrentresearchaswellasotherscholars’research(asoutlinedinprevioussectionsofthisarticle).ItismydesirethatteachersofanyethnicbackgroundwouldlearnfromwhatBlackteachersoftenbringintotheclass-roomasallteachersworktoimprovetheirpracticeswithstudents.

Figure 1Suppositions of Successful Teachers and Teaching

Culturally Responsive (Gay, 2000) Classroom Management (Weinstein, Thomlinson-Clarke & Curran, 2004) Approaches:TeachersmaybelesslikelytorefertheirBlackstudentstotheofficeforsuspensionandexpulsionbecausetheyimplementfirm,nononsensemanagementstylesintheirabilitiestocreateoptimallearningopportunitiesandspaceswherelearningcanoccur.Theyunderstandhowtogetstudentsinvolvedinlessons,andtheyhavestrictandsuccessfulclassroommanagementapproaches.

Culturally Informed Relationships:TeachersunderstandBlackstudentsandtheirexperiencesbothinsideandoutsideofschool.Theyuseculturalknowledgeaboutthestudents’(home)communitytobuildandsustainrelationshipswiththem.

Mentoring and Role-Models:Students often see thepossibilities of their futuresby thementoringandrole-modelingfromtheirteachers.Blackstudentsoftenthink:‘ifthey(asBlackteachers,principals,andsuperintendents)canbesuccessful,Icantoo.’

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Parental Connections:Theylearnanddeepentheirknowledge,understanding,andawarenessaboutBlackparentsandtheirconcernsinmanyoutofschoolcontextssuchaschurchorthebeautyshop.Theyrespectparentsoftheirstudents;theydonotinsultortalkdowntoparents,andtheparentsrespecttheteachers.Theyworktogetherforthebenefitofthestudents.

Culturally Congruent (Gay, 2000) Instructional Practices:Teachersrefusetoallowtheirstudentstofail(Ladson-Billings,2002).Theydevelopappropriate,relevant,responsive,andmeaningfullearningopportunitiesforstudents.Teachershavehighexpectationsforstudentsandpushstudentstodotheirbestwork.Teachersoftenseeexpertise,talents,andcreativityintheirstudents,andtheyinsistthatstudentsreachtheirfullcapacitytolearn.

Counter-Narrativeson Behalf of Black Students;Teachersofferacounter-storyorcounter-perspectiveonthesituationsthatBlackstudentsfindthemselvesdealingwithinschool.BecauseoftheirdeepculturalknowledgeaboutBlackstudents,theseteachersoftenadvocateforBlackstudentsinspaceswhereothersmisunderstandtheirlifeexperiences,worldviews,andrealities.

Inconclusion,thelossofAfricanAmericanteachersandtheinteractionsBlackstudentshadwiththeseteachershasbeendetrimentaltotheoverallsuccessofAf-ricanAmericanstudents.HudsonandHolmes(1994)explainedthat:“…thelossofAfricanAmericanteachersinpublicschoolsettingshashadalastingnegativeimpactonallstudents,particularlyAfricanAmericanstudentsandthecommuni-tiesinwhichtheyreside…”(p.389).Morethananything,Siddle-Walker(2000)concludedthatbecauseofthehardworkanddedicationofBlackteachers“studentsdidnotwanttoletthemdown”(p.265).Thestudentsputfortheffortandachievedacademicallyandsociallybecause

teachersheldextracurriculartutoringsessions,visitedhomesandchurchesinthecommunitywheretheytaught,evenwhentheydidnotliveinthecommunity,andprovidedguidanceabout“life”responsibilities.Theytalkedwithstudentsbeforeandafterclass,carriedastudenthomeifitmeantthatthechildwouldbeabletoparticipateinsomeextracurricularactivityheorshewouldnototherwiseparticipatein,purchasedschoolsuppliesfortheirclassroom,andhelpedtosupplyclothingforstudentswhoseparentshadfewerfinancialresourcesandscholarshipmoneyforthosewhoneededhelptogotocollege.(Siddle-Walker,2000,p.265)

Inshort,muchcanbelearnedfromthesuccessofBlackteacherswithBlackstudents.WhiletheincreaseintheBlackteachingforcecouldpotentiallybeadvantageousforBlackstudentsandallstudents,learningabouthowandwhattheseteachershavedonetobesuccessfulwithBlackstudentshasthepotentialtoassistusinthinkingabouttheeducationofteachers(anyteacher—fromanyethnicbackground)atthepresenttime.Thatis,whataresomecharacteristics,philosophies,andinsightsaboutBlackteachersthatotherteachers,fromanyethnicbackground,canusetoimprovetheirexperiencesandimpactwithBlackstudents?Inaddition,itisimportantforresearcherstocontinuethislineofinquirytobuildon,substantiate,andredirectwhatweknowandhowweknowitasweworktoprovidetheverybestlearningopportunitiesforallstudents—andespeciallyBlackstudents.

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Notes 1Throughoutthisarticle,theterms“Black”and“AfricanAmerican”areusedinter-changeably. 2Itisimportanttonotethatthese“experts”hadstudiedBrowninsomedimensionoftheirresearch.Insomecases,theexpertsmayformspeculativeargumentsaboutthenatureofquestionsposedbecausetheyhadnotstudied(withanydepth)thatparticularissue.Insuchcases,Iwassuretoframethesespeculativeclaimsassuch.Thatis,Itrustthelevelofexpertisethattheexpertssharedbutunderstoodthatinsomecasestheresearcherswererelyingonadatasetthatrelated toanissueratherthanfocusspecifically onthatissue.Finally,theterms“experts”and“participants”willbeusedinterchangeablythroughoutthisarticle. 3Pseudonymsareusedtomasktheidentityoftheparticipantsandtheirinstitutionalaffiliations.

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