The Cell knowledge handouts and notes

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SUMMARY – Organizer Handout (for Chapter 2, Section 1)

Step 1: Read one time. * Take notes too if you want!

Step 2: Write the Main Idea (1-2 sentences) – ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

Step 3: Write the supporting ideas. Write in the small boxes first!

Step 4: Write the supporting details. Write in the bigger boxes later!

Supporting Idea 1 (1-2 sentences)

Supporting Details 1 (1+ sentences)

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Reading Notes

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Cells

(Summary Note for Chapter 2, Section 1)

A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing that is able to perform life functions. All living things either have cells or are cells. Cells can vary from one living thing to another but all cells have three things in common: a cell membrane (outer covering), cytoplasm (the main medium inside the cell) and hereditary material (ex. DNA).

Cells also vary in size. Some are long as a metre (ex. nerve cell in human leg). Other cells are very tiny. With some bacterial cells you put 8000 of them in the letter “i” . They can also vary in shape and function.

As well we can divide cells into two main types:

1. Prokaryote Cells – structures (things) inside these cells are not surrounded by their own membrane

2. Eukaryote Cells - structures (things) inside these cells are surrounded by their own membrane

As well there are a number of distinct features that many (but not all!) cells possess:

A. Cell wall – some cells have a wall going around them (in addition to their cell membrane) such as plant, agae, fungi and many bacteria cells. Cell walls are tough outer coverings and they serve to protect the cell from stress. They also help to give cells a shape. Most cell walls have cellulose which creates a mesh throughout the cell wall to allow things to pass through. Also, there is sometimes pectin in cell walls which helps to make the cell wall rigid.

B. Cytoplasm – this is a gelatinlike (jello like) substance that fills the who cell like a medium.

The cytoplasm contains the framework for the cell called the cytoskeleton which helps the cell to move or maintain its shape. As well, many life processes occur in the cytoplasm including chemical reactions. You will find also the subunits of the eukaryote cell called organelles in the cytoplasm.

C. Nucleus – the nucleus is a very important organelle of the eukaryote cell. It controls and

regulates all cell activities. It also has its own membrane and it has DNA. DNA is a chemical that contains a code for the cell’s structure and activity. By reading this code, all cellular structures and activities occur.

D. Chloroplasts – these are green organelles found in plant cells. They contain chlorophyll

which can capture light energy to allow food to be made by a process called photosynthesis.

E. Mitochondria –these are special bean-shaped organelles where respiration occurs. Here food is broken down and energy is released in the process. Cells that require more energy will naturally have more mitochondria in them such as muscle cells.

F. Ribosomes- these organelles are the place where proteins are made for cells. These

organelles also are not surrounded by their own membrane. Either they float freely throughout the cytoplasm or they attach to another kind of organelle called the endoplasmic reticulum (or ER)

G. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) – this organelle is a series of some folded membranes. It takes up a lot of space inside the cell and can be rough or smooth. Rough ER have ribosomes attached but smooth ER do not. The function of ER is to allow materials to be processed and moved around the cell more easily.

H. Golgi Bodies- Golgi Bodies further modify the proteins made by the ER. They are flat membrane-bound substance. They package proteins made by the ER.

I. Vacuoles – some organisms (such as plant) also have some spaces in their cells surrounded by a membrane. This allows space for the cell’s food to be stonred

J. Lysosomes – these organelles contain protected chemicals that assist the cell into breaking down various things including food, cell waste and parts that are too old and less efficient.

Final Note- Cells often don’t work alone especially in complex living things. Usually, a group of cells share a similar function or communicate with each to work together. In humans, we describe a group of cells sharing the same or similar function as a tissue. Then, the group of cells or tissues other groups of tissues to form organs. For example, the heart is another organ.

Viewing Cells Please visit the following site to obtain the required area of knowledge for this note: http://shs.westport.k12.ct.us/mjvl/bi

ology/microscope/microscope.htm#magnify

http://shs.westport.k12.ct.us/mjvl/biology/microscope/microscope.htm#magnify



The Basic Makeup of a Virus A virus is a strand of hereditary material that is surrounded by a protein coat. It is not alive. It has no organelles or membranes. It can only reproduce with the help of living things. (It needs to use their cells)

Hereditary Material (ex. DNA)

Protein Coating

BACTERIOPHAGE

This virus attacks bacteria.

What a Virus Does (It simply does nothing or reproduces!)) A virus can make copies of itself (multiply) by using a living cell (called the host cell) of many living things (animals, plants, ….) Step 1 - Attacking A virus cannot move by itself but can be carried (ex. wind) to a cell - When near a cell, the virus attaches itself to the cell - Then, the virus injects its hereditary material into the cell -After that, the virus may simply do nothing. Such a virus is called a latent virus. OR the virus may be active. It somehow uses things in the cell to make copies of its injected material.

Virus attaches

to cell.

Hereditary material enters host cell.

The cell is

forced to make many copies

of viral parts

The cell is

forced to make many copies

of viral parts

Flu Virus

This virus causes the common flu. (Influenza)

Step 2 - Assembly

Next, new viruses are assembled inside the host cell

Step 3 - Release

Eventually, the new viruses are released to go off The cell itself is destroyed in the process.

New viruses are released.

Cell is destroyed.

Ebola Virus

This virus attacks humans and can make them sick

by giving them chills, dizziness and even comas

sometimes.

Fighting Viruses Viral infection is also called disease and there are many kinds depending on the virus. Fortunately, we can use vaccines to prevent disease A vaccine consists of weakened viral particles When a vaccine is injected into your body, the body reacts by making defense materials (ex. interferons) that can stop future viruses from infecting. Because the vaccine is weak, it cannot harm many cells before they build up a defense. There are also other ways to stop viruses such as anti-viral drugs, quarantining patients, killing infected animals, etc.

HIV Virus

This virus attacks humans and can cause AIDS.

____________________________________________________ (Chapter 3, Section 2) So far, you have learned that all living things require certain raw materials such as food, water and gases like oxygen. Also, you have learned that living things also get rid of certain materials as waste such as carbon dioxide. But how do these things actually get in and out of the living things? How can they travel through living things from one cell in one area to another cell in another area? Well.. there are a number of ways that such movement occurs. Three important ones are covered in this note: _____________________________- Passive transport is kind of movement of matter in or out of cells that does ____________ require any _________________ And one way that such movement can occur without energy is by _____________________. ____________________ is the random movement of matter (things) from an area that is _________________________ with them to another area that is ___________________________. For example, consider a crowded subway filled with a hundred people! Suddenly the door opens. What happens? Some of the people get pushed out into the more open space outside of the subway. Diffusion is the same idea but happens with cells. At some point, there is more matter for something inside the cell than outside the cell like the subway. So the matter inside automatically goes out without any energy required. The reverse can happen too. There can be a greater amount of matter outside of the cell than inside so this kind of matter will naturally travel into the cell. A good example of such matter is ___________________. You breathe oxygen so that there is a big amount outside of your lung cells. By diffusion, the oxygen moves into your lungs. Then the lung cells now have more oxygen in them than the empty red blood cells nearby. So now the oxygen moves out of the lung cells and into the red blood cells. The red blood cells can then transport the oxygen to other areas of the body and again some of the oxygen will diffuse into other cells because they are less crowded with oxygen than the red blood cells that are carrying the oxygen. Another good example is ______________. Water can also be passively transported from an area containing more water to inside a cell containing less water. Or vice verse. The ___________________ across a cell membrane is known as ________________. With certain plants, you can even see the results of osmosis by changes in their shape. Consider a carrot placed in pure water. There is more water outside so the carrot’s water stays in and the carrot is very rigid. But if the carrot is placed in salt water, there is less water matter (ie. molecules) in a given area near the carrot than inside the carrot. So water moves out of the carrot. The carrot starts to go limp as a result. It is also important to note that diffusion eventually _____________________. When enough matter moves from one place to another, it gets balanced between the two places until neither

place has more of the matter than the other. No more movement occurs. And we can say _________________ is reached. _____________________! Sometimes there are other things that help matter to diffuse in or out of cells. Again, _____________________ is needed to do this. A good example is __________________. The molecules are too big to travel by diffusion . So other molecules help them to diffuse. This kind of diffusion that involves assistance is called ________________. The other molecules that help matter to move are called __________________________. ___________________________ Sometimes, things need to get inside the cells even when there is less of them outside of the cell or they are too big to enter passively. Similarly, there are times when things need to get our cells but there all already so many of them outside of the cell. So how can these things move in or out? Active transport is the answer. Like facilitated diffusion, there are special proteins that associate with the matter to be transported. But this time, the proteins bind with the needed matter and cellular energy is also used up to allow the transport to occur from an area that is more crowded to an area that is less crowded.. So this type of transport if more active because of the crucial ____________________. For example, sometimes ________________________ is transported in or out of a cell by active transport. ________________________________________- These processes are used for extremely _____________________ or molecules of matter. They are so big that even transport proteins cannot help them to get in our out of the cell. So for this case. The whole cell slowly changes its shape. A part of it bends in such a way that it ______________________ the material to be transported either in or our of it. It then eventually folds completely so that the particle is enclosed by a sphere called a______________________ that is now separate from the cell. This vesicle is no separate from the main cell and can travel away. A good comparison is a balloon. Stick your finger into the balloon filled with just a little air.. What do you notice? Your finger gets completed surrounded (engulfed). If your finger and that piece of balloon could break off , your finger would end up inside the balloon! When the cell engulfs material outside of it which results in the creation of a vesicle ______________the cell, ___________________ is said to occur. On the other hand, when the cell engulfs something just inside its membrane, a vesicle gets created __________________ of the cell. _________________ is said to occur.

Transport Across the Cell- Extra Practice Handout 1. How is active transport different than simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion?

____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

2. The prefix exo- means “out of” and the prefix endo- means “taking in”. How do these meanings relate to the meaning of exocytosis and endocytosis?

____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 3.

A B

What process is shown in Figure A? _____________________________ What process is shown in Figure B? _____________________________ 4. Do you think that endocytosis and exocytosis can occur within the same cell? Explain your reasoning.

____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 5. Predict: If the transport proteins that carry important raw materials such as an amino acid into a cell stopped working, how might the process affect the cell?

____________________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________ (Chapter 3, Section 3) As you have already learned, all living things use some process to get vital energy in order to survive. For example, you learned that plants use photosynthesis first to obtain energy. Also, both plants and animals use respiration to get energy as well. But what exactly is happening in the living thing or more specifically in the cells of the living thing, that allow them to get energy and then use the energy to do various crucial things such as growing, breathing or reproducing? The answer is _____________________________. Whenever a energy-related process like photosynthesis or respiration occurs, various compounds like water, sugar, oxygen and other in cells of the living thing are interacting with each in such a way certain compounds are broken down while other compounds are made. Whenever this happens, we can say a _____________________________ occurs. Normally, one reaction does not occur for a process but many reactions occur for each and every process. The total of all chemical reactions in an organism is called _______________________. Further, these chemical reactions are not random events In fact, they normally cannot occur in the cells on their own. Instead, there are special proteins called __________________________ that assist all reactions and make sure that they occur properly and efficiently. The enzymes are able to make sure that the proper molecules needed in a reaction bind properly. Usually, the enzymes themselves _____________________________________ although the molecules in the reaction that they help often do. See Figure 12 in your textbook. Example 1- ______________________________________ As you have learned, photosynthesis is one important process that is used for getting energy in plants. More specifically, plants contain chlorophyll and other pigments that can capture light energy. Then the captured light energy is used to power specific reactions that create food for the plant. Again, enzymes are involved and they ensure that ____________________________________________________ react with each other in a special way. Then when this reaction happens, _______________________ are produced at the end. The plants then _______________________________ in a special form called _____________________ until they need energy that gets captured in the chemical bonds of the sugar when the sugar is made. When such a need arises (ex. for maintenance, growth, reproduction), they break down the food and get energy to use for such needs. Because plants are able to make their own food (And later get energy from it directly themselves), they are called _________________________. Other organisms that cannot make their own food but have to get by eating other living things are called ___________________________ Example 2 – ____________________________________: Respiration is another important process in living things where energy can be obtained and utilized. More specifically, respiration involves breaking down molecules in food which then releases their stored energy for the cells and the living thing. Like photosynthesis, enzymes are involved but this time they ensure that ________________________________ bind together. Then, a reaction occurs where ______________________________________ are produced and energy is also released and collected by the cell to use for various other processes that require it. So for respiration to occur, it is vital that the organism has food and oxygen. The more

active the organism, the more food and oxygen is required. This is why you breather harder when exercising and often feel more hungry after. You are trying to get more food and oxygen. For many living things (ex. plants, animals, fungi, other), respiration occurs ______________________________ and then ________________________moves into the _______________________________. Also, the main food source of energy is _________________________________. Example 3 - ________________________________ Fermentation is another process where energy can be obtained from ______________________ molecules. In many living things such as animals, fermentation occurs as a _____________________ for respiration. As stated, respiration requires oxygen. But sometimes the organism does not have enough oxygen at hand when it is needed. Instead of the organism encountering great stress, it resorts to another different process that can also release energy from food (glucose): ______________________. Again, glucoses molecules are broken down in the _________________ somewhere to create energy. Further, different molecules are produced during fermentation including a muscle painful compound called _______________________. This is actually what causes ___________________. There are even some organisms that carry out fermentation but respiration. One good example is certain ______________________that are used to make __________________ When these bacterial use fermentation to break down certain sugars in milk to get energy, lactic acid is again produced. See figure 15. The lactic acid however reacts with the milk / yogurt and the mild /yogurt becomes more solid. Another good example is _____________________ They can be used to make _________________ First, they are put in bread dough. After doing so, they naturally break down the sugar in the dough by fermentation. In the process, they produced carbon dioxide (and also alcohol). If they are in food, this carbon dioxide will eventually make the food ____________________. This is important for making bread. Final Note: It is also important to note the ___________________ between photosynthesis with respiration and fermentation. The _________________________ seems to happen. For instance, photosynthesis uses energy to make food. Respiration and fermentation use (break down) food to get energy. As well, photosynthesis produces sugar and oxygen. Respiration needs sugar and oxygen to occur. And respiration produces oxygen and water which is what photosynthesis needs to occur.

Grade 6 Vocabulary for The Genetics Project

heredity allele

genetics hybrid

dominant recessive

punnett square genotype

phenotype homozygous

heterozygous polygenic

inheritance sex-linked

gene mitosis

chromosome asexual

reproduction sexual

zygote Diploid

haploid meiosis

DNA RNA

mutation fertilization

Education

The Cell knowledge handouts and notes