LANGUAGE EDUCATION I (Units 1 to 3)

UNIT 1

“ Teaching by Principles” Brown, H. Douglas (2001)

CHAPTER 4

COGNITIVE PRINCIPLESThe first set of principles is called “cognitive” because they relate mainly to

mental and intellectual functions.

Principle 1: AutomaticityThrough an inductive process of exposure to language input and opportunity

to experiment with output, children appear to learn languages without “thinking” about them.

The Principle of Automaticity includes the importance of: Subconscious absorption of language through meaningful use, Efficient and rapid movement away from a focus on the forms of language

to a focus on the purposes to which language is put, Efficient and rapid movement away from capacity-limited control of a few

bits and pieces to a relatively unlimited automatic mode of processing language forms, and

Resistance to the temptation to analyze language forms.

The Principle of Automaticity may be stated as follows: Efficient second language learning involves a timely movement of the control

of a few language forms into the automatic processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms. Overanalysing language, thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules of language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity.

The principle says that adults can take a lesson from children by speedily overcoming our propensity to pay too much focal attention to the bits and pieces of language and to move language forms quickly to the periphery by using language in authentic contexts for meaningful purposes.

In classroom: 1. Being too heavily centered on the formal aspects of language can block

pathways to fluency.

2. A large proportion of your lessons should be focused on the “use” of language for purposes that are genuine.

3. Be patient with students to help them achieve fluency.

Principle 2: Meaningful LearningMeaningful learning “subsumes” new information into existing structures and

memory systems and the resulting associative links create stronger retention. Rote learning – isolated pieces of information that aren’t connected to the existing cognitive structure – has little chance of creating long-term retention.

The Principle of Meaningful Learning is stated: Meaningful learning will lead toward better long-term retention than rote

learning.

In classroom: 1. Appeal to students’ interests, academic goals and career goals.2. When introducing a new topic, attempt to anchor it in students’ existing

knowledge and background.3. Avoid the pitfalls of rote learning:

a. too much grammar explanationsb. too much abstract principles and theoriesc. too much drilling and/or memorization d. unclear activitiese. activities that don’t contribute to accomplishing the goals of the

lesson, unit or coursef. techniques too mechanic and tricky

Principle 3: The Anticipation of Reward (Skinner)The anticipation of reward is the most powerful factor in directing one’s

behaviour. The Reward Principle is stated: Human being are universally driven to act, or “behave”, by the anticipation of

some sort of reward – tangible or intangible, short term or long term – that will ensue as a result of the behaviour.

Conditioning by rewards can (a) lead learners to become dependent on short-term rewards, (b) coax them into a habit of looking to teachers and others for their only rewards, and therefore (c) forestall the development of their own internally administered, intrinsic system of rewards.

In classroom:

1. Provide an optimal degree of immediate verbal praise and encouragement to them as a form of short-term reward.

2. Encourage students to reward each other with compliments and supportive action.

3. In classes with very low motivation, short-term reminders of progress may help students. (Gold stars and stickers, privileges for good work, progress charts and graphs, etc.).

4. Display enthusiasm and excitement yourself.5. Try to get learners to see the long-term rewards in learning English.

Principle 4: Intrinsic MotivationThe Intrinsic Motivation Principle is: The most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated within

the learner. Because the behaviour stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behaviour itself is self-rewarding therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary.

In classroom:1. Consider carefully the intrinsic motives of your students.2. Design classroom tasks that feed into those intrinsic drives. (self-rewarding

classes)

Principle 5: Strategic InvestmentThe Principle of Strategic Investment is stated: Successful mastery of the second language will be due as a large extent to a

learner’s own personal “investment” of time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language.

The principle has 2 major pedagogical implications: (a) the importance of recognizing and dealing with the styles and strategies that learners bring to the learning process, and therefore (b) the need for attention to each individual in the classroom.

In classroom: 1. A variety of techniques in your lessons will ensure that you’ll rich a maximum

number of students. Choose a mixture of group work and individual work, of visual and auditory techniques, of easy and difficult exercises.

2. Pay as much attention as you can to each individual.

AFFECTIVE PRINCIPLES

Principle 6: Language EgoThe Language Ego Principle can be summarized in this claim: As human beings learn to use a second language, they also develop a new

mode of thinking, feeling, and acting – a second identity. The new “language ego”, intertwined with the second language, can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, a defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions

The Language Ego Principle also called “warm and fuzzy” principles: all second language learners need to be treated with affective tender living care.

In classroom:1. Overtly display a supportive attitude to your students. 2. Your choice of techniques and sequences of techniques needs to be

cognitively challenging but not overwhelming at an affective level. 3. If your students are learning English as a second language, they are likely to

experience a moderate identity crisis as they develop a “second self”. Help them see that this is a normal and natural process.

Principle 7: Self-ConfidenceThis Principle emphasizes the importance of the learner’s self-assessment,

regardless of the degree of language-ego involvement. It states: Learners’ belief that they indeed are fully capable of accomplishing a task is

at least partially a factor in their eventual success in attaining the task.

In classroom:1. Give ample verbal and nonverbal assurances to students. It helps students

to hear a teacher affirm a belief in the student’s ability.2. Sequence techniques from easier to more difficult.

Principle 8: Risk-TakingThe previous 2 principles, if satisfied, by the groundwork for risk-taking.

Learners are ready to try out their newly acquired language, to useit for meaningful purposes, to ask questions, and to assert themselves.

It states: Successful language learners, in their realistic appraisal of themselves as

vulnerable beings yet capable of accomplishing tasks, must be willing to become “gamblers” in the game of language, to attempt to produce and interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty.

In classroom:1. Create an atmosphere in the classroom hat encourages students to try out

language to venture a response, and not to wait for someone else to volunteer language.

2. Provide reasonable challenges in your techniques.3. Respond to students’ risky attempts with positive affirmations.

Principle 9: The Language-Culture ConnectionThis principle focuses on the complex interconnection of language and culture:

Whenever you tech a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting.

In classroom:1. Discuss cross-cultural differences with your students, emphasizing that no

culture is “better” than another. 2. Include certain activities and materials that illustrate the connection

between language and culture.3. Teach them the cultural connotations of language.4. Don’t use material that is culturally offensive.

A second aspect of the Language-Culture Connections is the extent to which your students will be affected by the process of acculturation. Especially in “second” language learning contexts, the success with which

learners adapt to a new cultural milieu will affect their language acquisition success, and vice versa, in some possibly significant ways.

In classroom:1. Help students to be aware of acculturation and its stages.2. Stress the importance of the second language as a powerful tool for

adjustment in the new culture.3. Be sensitive to any students who appear to be discouraged.

LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES

Principle 10: The Native Language EffectThe Principle of the Native Language Effect stresses the importance of that

native system in the linguistic attempts of the second language learner: The native language of learners exerts a strong influence on the acquisition

of the target language system. While that native system will exercise both facilitating and interfering effects on the production and comprehension of the new language, the interfering effects are likely to be the most salient.

Errors are windows to a learner’s internalized understanding of the second language, and therefore they give teachers something observable to reach to.

In classroom:1. Regard learners’ errors as important windows to their underlying system

and provide appropriate feedback on them.2. To understand that not everything about their native language sustem

will cause error.3. Try to coax students into thinking in the second language instead of

resorting to translation as they comprehend and produce language.

Principle 11: InterlanguageIt states:

Second language learners tend to go to a systematic or quasi-systematic developmental process as they progress to full competence in the target language. Successful Interlanguage development is partially a result of utilizing feedback from others.

There is a distinction between affective and cognitive feedback. The former, is the extent to which we value or encourage a student’s attempt to communicate; the latter, is the extent to which we indicate and understanding of the “message” itself.

In classroom:1. Distinguish between a student’s systematic Interlanguage errors and other

errors.2. Exercise some tolerance for certain Interlanguage forms may arise out of

students’ logical development process.3. Don’t make student feel stupid because of an Interlanguage error.4. Classroom feedback message that mistakes are not “bad”. Mistakes are

often indicators of aspects of the new language that are still developing.5. Try to get student to self-correct selected errors.6. Ample affective feedback (verbal or nonverbal).7. Kindness and empathy.

Principle 12: Communicative CompetenceThis principle consists of some combinations of the following components:

Organizational competence (grammatical and discourse) Pragmatic competence (functional and sociolinguistic) Strategic competence

Psychomotor skillsThis is probably the most important linguistic principle of learning ad teaching:

Given that communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom, instruction needs to point toward all its components: organizational, pragmatic, strategic, and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best achieved by giving due attention to language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and to students’ eventual need to apply classroom learning to previously unrehearsed contexts in the real world.

In classroom:1. Give grammar some attention, but don’t neglect the other important

components.2. Some of the pragmatic aspects of language are very subtle and therefore

very difficult. Make sure your lessons aim to teach such subtlety.3. When teaching functional and sociolinguistic aspects of language, don’t

forget that the psychomotor skills are an important components of both. 4. Give them opportunities to gain some fluency in English without having ti be

constantly wary of little mistakes. 5. Try to keep every technique that you use as authentic is possible: use

language from the real world.

CHAPTER 5

“ Intrinsic Motivation in the Classroom”

One of the more complicated problems of second language learning and teaching has been to define and apply the construct of motivation in the classroom.

DEFINING MOTIVATIONMotivation is the extent to which you make choice about (a) goals to pursue

and (b) the effort you will devote to that pursuit. We can look at theories of motivation in terms of two opposing camps: one of them is a traditional view of motivation that accounts for human behaviour through a behaviouristic paradigm that stresses the importance of rewards and reinforcements. In the other camp are cognitive psychological viewpoints that explain motivation through deeper, less observable phenomena.

1. A Behaviouristic Definition

A behaviouristic psychologist like Skinner or Watson would stress the role of rewards (and punishments) in motivating behaviour. In Skinner’s operant conditioning model, human beings will pursue a goal because they perceive a reward for doing so. This reward serves to reinforce behaviour (M&M theory of behaviour).

A behaviourist would define motivation as “the anticipation of reinforcement”.

Reinforcement theory is a powerful concept for the classroom. Learners pursue goals in order to receive externally administered rewards: praise, gold stars, etc.

2. Cognitive DefinitionsThere 3 different theories:A. Drive theory: those who see human drives as fundamental to human

behaviour claim that motivation stems from basic innate drives. Ausubel created 6 different drives:

• Exploration• Manipulation• Activity• Stimulation• Knowledge• Ego enhancement

All of these drives act not much as reinforces but as innate predispositions, compelling us to probe the unknown, to control our environment, to be physically active, to be receptive to mental, emotional, or physical stimulation, to yearn for answers to questions, and to build ou own self-esteem.B. Hierarchy of needs theory: Maslow describes a system of needs within

each human being that propel us to higher attainment. Maslow’s hierarchy is best viewed metaphorically as a pyramid of needs, progressing from the satisfaction of purely physical needs up through safety and communal needs, to needs of esteem, and finally to “self-actualization”.

A key importance here is that a person is not adequately energized to pursue some of the higher needs until the lower foundations of the pyramid have been satisfied.

For an activity in the classroom to be motivating, it does not need to outstandingly striking, innovative, or inspirational. C. Self-control theory: the importance of people deciding for themselves what to think or feel or do. Motivation is highest when one can make one’s own choices, wheter they are in short-term or long term-contexts.

INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONTwo important points:

1. Orientation means a context or purpose for learning; motivation refers to the intensity one’s impetus to learn. An integrative orientation means that the learner is pursuing a second language for social and/or cultural purposes where the learner could be driven by a high level of motivation or a low level. In an instrumental orientation, learners are studying a language in order to further a career or academic goal.

2. Integrative and instrumental orientations are not to be confused with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Integrative/Instrumental orientation is a true dichotomy and refers only to the context of learning. Intrinsic/extrinsic motivation designates a continuum of possibilities of intensity of feeling or drive, from deeply internal, self-generated rewards to strong, externally administered rewards

Edward Deci defined intrinsic motivation this way: Intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no reward

except the activity itself. Intrinsically motivated behaviours are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely, feelings of competence and self-determination.

Extrinsically motivated behaviours are carried out in anticipation of a reward outside and beyond the self. (Extrinsic rewards: money, prizes, grades, etc). Behaviours initiated solely to avoid punishment are also extrinsically motivated.

A research shows that one type of extrinsic reward can indeed have an effect on intrinsic motivation: the positive feedback that learners perceive as a boost to their feelings of competence and self-determination.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION An intrinsically oriented school can begin to transform itself into a more positive, affirming environment, not so much by revolutionizing society but by shifting its view of the student.

From extrinsic to intrinsic motivation in educational institutions:

EXTRINSIC PRESSURES

INTRINSIC INNOVATIONS

MOTIVATIONAL RESULTS

School curriculum Learner-centeredPersonal goal-setting

Self-esteemSelf-actualizationDecide for self

Parental expectations Family values Love, intimacy, acceptance, respect for wisdom

Society’s expectations (conformist)

Security of comfortable routinesTask-based teaching

Community, belonging, identity, harmony, security

Tests & exams Peer evaluation,Self-diagnosisLevel-check exercises

ExperienceSelf-knowledge

Immediate gratification (“M&Ms”)

Long-term goalsThe big picture“things take time”

Self-actualization

Make money Content-based teaching, ESPVocational educationWorkplace ESL

CooperationHarmony

Competition Cooperative learningGroup workThe class is a team

Manipulations, strength, status, security

Never fall Risk-taking, innovationCreativity

Learn from mistakes Nobody’s perfect

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN TH SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

There are activities that capitalize on the intrinsic by appealing to learners’ self-determination and autonomy:

• Teaching writing as a thinking process to develop own ideas.• Strategies of reading that enable them to bring their information to the

written word.• Language experience approaches to create own reading materials for others

in class. • Oral fluency exercises to talk about their interests.• Listening to an academic lecture in one’s own field of study.• Communicative language teaching to enable them to accomplish specific

functions.• Grammatical explanations.

THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO EXPLAINING SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Some theories give primary importance to learners´ innate characteristics; some emphasize the essential role of the environment in shaping language learning; still others seek to integrate learner characteristics and environmental factors in an explanation for how second language acquisition takes place.

Learner characteristics

All second language learners have at least one language. The learner has an idea of how languages work. Knowledge of other languages can also make learners to make incorrect guesses about how the second language works and this may cause errors.

The first language learner does not have the same cognitive maturity, metalinguistic, awareness, or world knowledge as older second language learners. Second language learners, they will still have far to go in these areas, world knowledge.

Most child learners do not feel about attempting to use the language, but adults and adolescents often find it very stressful when they are unable to express themselves clearly and correctly.

Learning conditions

Younger learners, informal second language learning, usually allowed to be silent until they are ready to speak. Older learners are often forced to speak. Young children in informal setting are exposed to the second language for many hours every day. Older learners, especially students in language classroom, are more likely to receive only limited exposure to the second language.

One condition which appears to be common to learners of all ages is access to modified input, sometimes called foreigner talk or teacher talk for second languages. People who interact with language learners have sense of what adjustments are needed to help learners understand.

Error correction in first language acquisition tends to be limited to corrections of meaning, including errors in vocabulary choice. In informal second language acquisition, errors meaning are usually overlooked. Errors of grammar and pronunciation are rarely remarked on, but the wrong word choice may receive comment from a puzzled interlocutor. The only place where feedback on error is typically present with high frequency is the language classroom.

Behaviourism

The impact of behaviourism on our understanding of the second language learning.

Behaviourists account for learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation all learning takes place through the same underlying processes. Learners receive between input from speakers in their environment and they form associations between words and objects or events. These associations become stronger as imitations, and corrective feedback on their errors. Language development is viewed as the formation of habits.

Behaviourism was often linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH). The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first language and the target language, the learner will acquire target-language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.

Learners are reluctant to transfer certain features of their first language to the second language. All this suggests that the influence of the learner’s first language may not simply be a matter of the transfer of habits, but a more subtle and complex process of identifying points of similarity, weighing the evidence and even reflecting about whether a certain features seems to belong in the structure of the target language.

The behaviourist account has proven to be at best an incomplete explanation for language learning.

Innatism

Universal Grammar

Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition is based on the hypothesis that innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar (UG) permits all children to acquire the language of their environment, during a critical period in their development. Implications of this theory for second language learning, some linguists working within this theory have argued that UG offers the best perceptive from which to understand second language acquisition (SLA). UG is no longer available to guide the acquisition of a second language in learners who have passed the critical period for language acquisition.

Do not all agree on how UG works in second language development. Even if second language learners begin learning the second language after the end of the critical period and even if many fail to achieve complete mastery acquisition: learners

eventually know more about the language than they could reasonably have learned if they had to depend entirely on the input they are exposed to. They infer from this that UG must be available to second language learners as well as to firs language learners.

Researchers working within the UG differ in their hypotheseses about how formal instruction or error correction will affect the learner’s knowledge of the second language. Adult second language learners neither need nor benefit from error correction and metalinguistic information. These change only the superficial appearance of language performance and do not affect the knowledge of the new language. Other UG linguists, suggest that second language learners may need to be given some explicit information about what is not grammatical in the second language.

Researchers who study SLA from the UG perspective are interested in the language competence (knowledge) of advanced learners rather than in the simple language of early stages learners. Thus their investigations involve the judgements of grammaticality, rather than observations of actual speaking. They hope to gain insight into what learners actually know about the language, using a task which avoids at least some of the many things which affect the way we ordinarily use language.

Recent psychological theories

Information processing

Cognitive psychologists working in an information processing model of human learning and performance tend to see second language acquisition as the building up of knowledge systems that can eventually bi called on automatically for speaking and understanding. At first, learners pay attention to any aspect of the language which they are trying to understand or produce. There is a limit to the amount of information a human can pay attention to at one time. The performance which eventually become automatic may originate from intentional learning. Anything which uses up our mental processing space is a possible source for information which can eventually be available automatically.

Everything we come to know about the language was first noticed consciously (Schmidt).

There are changes in skill and knowledge which are due to restructuring. Sometime things which we know and use automatically may not be explainable in terms of a

gradual build-up of automatically through practice. They seem to be based on the interaction of knowledge weal ready have or on the acquisition of new knowledge which somehow fits into an existing system and causes it to be transformed or restructured.

Connectionism

Connectionists unlike innatists, see no need to hypothesize the existence of a neurological module connectionists attribute greater importance to the role of the environment than to any innate knowledge, arguing that what in innate is simply the ability to learn, not any specifically linguistic structure.

Connectionists argue that learners gradually build up their knowledge of language through exposure to thousands of instances of the linguistic features they learn. While innatists see the language input in the environment mainly as a trigger to activate innate knowledge, connectionists see the input as the principal source of linguistic knowledge. After hearing language features over and over again, learners develop stronger and stronger mental or neurological connections between these elements. The presence of one situational or linguistic element will the other in the learner’s mind.

The interactionist position

Some interactionist theorists have argued that much second language acquisition takes places through conversational interaction. Comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition. Michael Long is more concerned with the question of how input is made comprehensible. What learners need is not necessarily simplification of the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other speakers, in ways which lead them to adapt what they are saying until the learner shows sings of understanding. Research show that native speakers consistently modify their speech in sustained conversation with non-native speakers.

Modified interaction necessary for language acquisition:1- Interactional modification makes input comprehensible;2- Comprehensible input promotes acquisition.Therefore3- Interactional modification promotes acquisition.

Modified interaction may include elaboration, slower speech rate gesture, or the provision of additional contextual cues.

1- Comprehension checks – to ensure that the learners has understood2- Clarification requests3- Self-repetition or paraphrase

Conversational adjustments can aid comprehension. Modification which takes place during interaction leads to better understanding than linguistic simplification.

Another perspective on the role of interaction in second language acquisition is Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human mental processing. Vygotsky’s theory assumes that all cognitive development arises as a result of social interactions between individuals. Extending Vygotsky’s theory others claim that second language learners to higher levels of linguistic knowledge when they collaborate and interact with speakers of the second language who are more knowledge that they are for example, a teacher or a more advanced learner.

Summary

In the end, what all theories of language acquisition are meant account for is the working of the human mind.

Many claims from behaviourist theory were based on experiments with animals learning a variety of responses to laboratory stimuli. Their applicability to the natural learning of language was strongly challenged because of the inadequacy behaviourist models.

Information processing and connectionist research often involves computer simulations or very controlled laboratory experiments. Many linguists argue that this does not entitle connectionists to generalize to the complexities of a normal human language learning.

The innatists draw much of their evidence from studies of the complexities of the proficient speaker’s language knowledge and performance and from analysis of their own intuitions about language. Critics argue that it is not enough to know what the final state of knowledge.

Interactionists emphasize the role of the modification of interaction in conversations. Critics agree that there is much which learners need to know which is not available in the input.

4- FACTORS AFFECTING SECOND LANGAUGE LEARNING

All normal children, given a normal upbringing, are successful in the acquisition of their first language. This contrasts with our experience of second language learners, whose success varies greatly.Many of us believe that learners have certain characteristics which lead to more or less successful language learning. Such beliefs are usually based on anecdotal evidence, of our own or of people we know. In addition to personality characteristics, other factors generally considered to be relevant to language learning are intelligence, aptitude, motivation and attitudes. Also, the age at which learning begins.

Characteristics of the “good language learner”

Some people have a much easier time of learning than others. Rate of development varies widely among first language learners. In second language learning, some students progress rapidly through the initial stages of learning a new language while others struggle along making very slow progress. Some learners never achieve native-like command of a second language.

RESEARCH ON LEARNER CHARACTERISTICS

When researchers are interested in finding out whether motivation affects second language learning, they select a group of learners and give them a questionnaire to measure the type and degree of their motivation. The learners are then given a test to measure their second language proficiency. The test and the questionnaire are scored and the researcher performs a correlation on the two measures, to see whether learners with high scores on the proficiency test are also more likely to have high scores on the motivation questionnaire. If this is the case, the researcher concludes that high levels of motivation are correlated with success in language learning.The first problem is that is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities such as motivation, extroversion, or even intelligence. These are just labels of behaviours and characteristics. Different researchers have often used the same labels to describe different sets of behavioural traits.Another factor which makes it difficult to reach conclusions about relationships between individual learner characteristics and second language learning is how language proficiency is defined and measured.Finally, there is the problem of interpreting the correlation of two factors as being due to causal relationship between them. The fact that two things tend to

occur together does not necessarily mean that one caused the other. Learners who are successful may indeed be highly motivated.

Intelligence This term has traditionally been used to refer to performance on certain kinds of tests. These tests are often associated with success in school, and a link between intelligence and second language learning has sometimes been reported. Over the years, many studies have found that IQ scores were a good means of predicting how successful a learner would be. Recent studies have shown that these measures may be more strongly related to certain kinds of second language abilities than to others. Intelligence may be a strong factor when it comes to learning. It may play a less important role in classrooms where the instruction focuses more on communication and interaction.It is complex. Individuals have many kinds of abilities and strengths, not all of which are measured by traditional IQ tests. Many students whose academic performance has been experienced considerably success in second language learning.

AptitudeSome individuals have an exceptional “aptitude” for language learning. Learning quickly is the distinguishing feature of aptitude. The most widely used aptitude tests are the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and the Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB). Both based on the view that aptitude is composed of different types of abilities: 1- the ability to identify and memorize new sounds; 2- the ability to understand the function of particular words in sentences; 3- the ability to figure out grammatical rules from language samples; 4- memory for new words.Successful language learners may not be strong in all of the components of aptitude. Teachers may find that knowing the aptitude profile of their students will help them in selecting appropriate classroom activities for particular groups of students.

PersonalityA number of personality characteristics have been proposed as likely to affect second language learning, but it has not been easy to demonstrate their effects in empirical studies. As with other research investigating the effects of individual characteristics on second language learning, different studies measuring a similar personality trait produce different results. An extroverted person is well suited to language learning. Success is correlated with learners’ scores on characteristics often associated with extroversion such as assertiveness and adventurousness;

others have found many successful language learners do not get high scores on measures of extroversion. Another aspect studied is inhibition which discourages risk- taking. It’s a problem of adolescents, who are more self-conscious than younger learners. Inhibition is a negative force for second language pronunciation performance.Several other personality characteristics such as self-esteem, empathy, dominance, talkativeness, and responsiveness have also been studied. The major difficulty in investigating personality characteristics is that of identification and measurement.Many researchers believe that personality will be shown to have an important influence on success in language learning. Probably not personality alone, but the way it combines with other factors, that contributes to second language learning.

MOTIVATION AND ATTITUDES

There has been a great deal of research on the role of attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Positive attitudes and motivation are related to success in second language learning. The question is, are learners more highly motivated because the are successful, or they are successful because they are highly motivated?Motivation can be defined in terms of two factors: learners’ communicative needs and their attitudes towards the second language community. If learners need to speak the second language in a wide range of social situations they will perceive the communicative value of the second language and therefore be motivated to acquire proficiency in it. The terms integrative motivation refer to language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment, and instrumental motivation for language learning for more immediate or practical goals. Depending on the learner’s attitudes, learning a second language can be a source of enrichment or a source of resentment. If the reason for learning the second language is external pressure, internal motivation may be minimal and general attitudes towards learning may be negative.One factor which affects motivation is the social dynamic or power relationship between the languages. That is, members of a minority group learning the language of a majority group have different attitudes and motivation from majority group members learning a minority language.

Motivation in the classroom settingIn a teacher’s mind, motivated students are those who participate actively in class, express interest and study a great deal. If we can make our classroom places where students enjoy coming because the content is interesting, where the learning goals are challenging yet manageable, where the atmosphere is supportive

and non- threatening, we can make a positive contribution to students’ motivation to learn. Also:-motivating students into the lesson-varying the activities, tasks and materials- using co-operative rather than competitive goals

Learner preferencesLearners have clear preferences for how they go about learning new material (learning style). People cannot learn something until they have seen it. Such learners would fall into the group called visual learners. Other people, may be called aural learners, need only to hear something once or twice before they know it. Others are kinaesthetic learners, need to add a physical action to the learning process. In contrast considerably research has focused on a cognitive learning style distinction between field independent and field dependent learners. An individual tends to separate details from the general background or to see thing holistically. Another category is based on the individual’s temperament or personality.When learners express a preference for seeing something written or for memorizing material, we should not assume that the ways of working are wrong. We should encourage them to use all means available.

Learners beliefsAll the learners, have strong beliefs and opinions about how their instruction should be delivered. Usually based on previous learning experiences and the assumption that a particular type o instruction is the best way for them to learn. Learners beliefs can be strong mediating factors in the experience in the classroom.Learners’ preferences for learning, will influence the kind of strategies they use in order to learn new material.

Age of acquisitionA learner characteristic: age. It’s easier to define and measure than personality, aptitude and motivation.Children from immigrant families eventually speak the language of their new community with native-like fluency. Many adults second language learners become capable of communicating very successfully in the language but, difference of accent, word choice or grammatical features distinguish them from native speakers and second language speakers.In first language acquisition, there is a critical period for second language acquisition. There is a time in human development when the brain is predisposed to succeed in language learning. Changes in the brain affect the nature of language

acquisition. According to this view, language learning which occurs after the end of a critical period may not be based on the innate biological structures to contribute to first language acquisition or second lang acquisition in early childhood. The critical period ends somewhere around puberty, some even earlier.Younger learners (Critical period Hypothesis) have more time to devote to learning a language. They have more opportunities to hear and use the language in environments where they do not experience pressure to speak fluently. Older learners are in situations which demand more complex language. Adults are often embarrassed with their lack of mastery of the language and must develop a sense of inadequacy after experiences of frustration in trying to say exactly what they mean. Some studies of older and younger learners have shown that older learners are more efficient than younger students. In educational research, learners who began learning a second language at the primary school level did not fare better in the long run than those who began in early adolescence.

Critical Period Hypothesis: More than just accent?

Most studies have focused on learners´ phonological (pronunciation) achievement. Older learners have a noticeable foreign accent. Is syntax dependent on age of acquisition as phonological development? What about morphology? One study that attempted to answer these questions was done by Mark Patkowski.

Mastery of the spoken language Mark Patkowski studied the effect of the age on the acquisition of features of a second language other than accent. He hypothesized that, even if accent were ignored, only those who had begun learning their second language before the age of 15 could ever achieve full, native-like mastery of that language.Patkowski´s first question. Will there be a difference between learners who began to learn English before puberty and those who began learning English later? It Was answered with a yes. Age was closely related to the other factors that it was not really possible to separate them completely. Person who had lived in the country for 15 years might speak better than one who had been there for only 10 years. However, a person who had arrived in the United States at the age of 18 and had lived there for 20 years did not score significantly better than someone had arrived at the age of 18 but only lived there for 10 years.Thus Patkowski found that age of acquisition in a very important factor in setting limits on the development of native-like mastery of second language and that this limitation does not apply only to accent.

Native-like mastery of the spoken language is difficult to attain by older learners. Even the ability appears to be affected by the age factor.

Intuition of grammaticalityJaqueline Johnson and Elissa Newport conducted a study of 46 Chinese and Korean speakers who had begun to learn English at different ages.They found that there was a strong relationship between an early start to language learning and better performance in the second language. Those who began before the age of 15, especially before the age of 10, there were few individual differences in second language ability. Those who began later did not have native-like language abilities and were more likely to differ from one another in ultimate attainment.This study, supports the hypothesis that there is a critical period for attaining full native-like mastery of a second language.

Is younger really better?Catherine Snow and Marian Hoefnagel- Hohle published an article based on a research project they had carried out in Holland. They studied the progress of a group of English speakers who were learning Dutch as a second language. (including children from three years old to older children, adolescents and adults. A large number of tasks was used to measure different types of language use and language knowledge.-pronunciationAuditory discriminationMorphologySentence repetitionSentence translationSentence judgement taskPeabody Picture vocabulary ( learners saw 4 pictures and heard 1 isolate word. They should indicate which picture matched the word)Story comprehension taskStorytelling taskLearners were divided into children (3 to 10), adolescents (12 to 15) and adults (18 to 60)

At what age should second language instruction begins?Younger is better. Older learners may well speak with an accent because they want to continue being identified with their first language. It is better to begin second language instruction as early as possible. It is very important to bear in mind the context of these levels. However, early intensive exposure to the second language may entail the loss or in incomplete development of the child’s first language.

It is assumed that the child’s native language will remain the primary language, it may be more efficient to begin second or foreign language teaching later.After years of classes, learners feel frustrated by the lack of progress, and their motivation to continue may be diminished. School programs should be based on realistic estimates of how long it takes to learn a second language. One or two hours a week will not produce very advanced second language speakers, no matter how young they were when they began.

MOTIVATION

6.1 Introduction:It is one of the most powerful influences on learning and is sometimes used as a blanket term to signify that someone has a general disposition to learn. The term “motivation” is composed of many different and overlapping factors such as interest, curiosity or a desire to achieve. It is also subject to various external influences such as parents, teachers and exams. We’ll focus on a cognitive approach where the emphasis is placed upon ways in which individuals make sense of their learning experiences and are seen as being motivated by their conscious thoughts and feelings.

6.2 Early psychological views on motivationEarly work was based upon the behaviour of animals in laboratories. In this way, human motivation to learn any particular thing was accounted for in terms of what biological needs were being met during the early learning years and what kind of reward or reinforcement was provided for early attempts to learn. This kind of approach gave rise to modern behaviourism with its emphasis upon the nature and scheduling of reward system as the most effective way of motivation largely in terms of external forces.Behaviourism would consider motivation in terms of external forces. What specific condition give rise to what kind of behaviour and how the consequences of that behaviour affect whether it is more or less likely to happen again.

Murray identified a large number of human needs as causing inner tensions which had to be released. Motivation was defined in terms of the “press” the urge to release the tension and satisfy.

For many years such drive reduction theories dominated theory and research on motivation.

6.2.1 Achievement motivation

a reformulation of the drive reduction approach was the notion of need to achieve or achievement motivation. It states that people differ markedly in their need to achieve or to be successful. For some people, the drive to succeed dominates their lives and pushes them to be high achievers whereas for others, it really doesn’t seem to matter if they do well or not. At the same time, a person might be inclined to avoid engaging in an activity because of fear of failure. Achievement motivation can be determined as the relative strength of the tendency to approach a task compared with the strength of the tendency to avoid the task.

However, in its early form, achievement theory placed little emphasis upon how people made sense of the tasks with which they were presented. The drive to achieve was viewed as unconscious and as a simple cancelling out of conflicting forces – a kind of approach/avoidance ratio.

6.2.2 Optimal arousalThe drive reduction and achievement theories had several problems, one of them is that they were based on the fundamental principle of homeostasis. They assume that animals and humans prefer not to be in a state of arousal and are constantly seeking to be in a more settled state. A complementary view emerged suggesting that both humans and animals seek a level of “optimal arousal” at which they function best without having to meet any other basic needs.

Early approaches were not satisfactory because they were too simplistic and based on the principle of homeostasis, which does not always apply even to animal behaviour and they presented a view of individuals at they mercy of forces beyond their control.

6.3 Motivation in foreign and second language learning

The learning of a foreign language involves far more than simply learning skills, or a system of rules or a grammar; it involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of a new social and cultural behaviours and ways of being and therefore has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner. (Learning a second language is learning to be another social person - Crookall)

Success in learning a foreign language will be influenced particularly by attitudes towards the community of speakers of that language. Language learning will also be affected by the whole social situation, context and culture in which the learning takes place.

The socio-educational model incorporates the learner’s cultural beliefs, their attitudes towards this learning situation, their integrativeness and their motivation. (Garner)

He defines motivation as the combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favourable attitudes towards learning the language. Garner also makes a distinction between integrative and instrumental orientations. Orientation is not the same as motivation but represents reasons for studying language. Integrative orientation: occurs when the learner is studying a language because of a wish to identify with the culture of speakers of that language.

Instrumental orientation: describes a group of factors concerned with motivation arising form external goals such as passing exams, financial rewards, furthering careers or gaining promotions.

Integrative orientation is one of the factors that contributes towards integrative motivations. Ellis identifies 6 variables. Attitude towards the culture ? Interest in foreign languages Integrative orientation Attitude towards the learning situation Desire to learn Attitude towards learning a language

Integrative motivation correlates with higher achievement in the language.Integrative

While this is more important in a second language context, an instrumental orientation may be important in other situations such as learning English in a place where it functions more as a foreign language (China, Philippines). However, many studies have found that a number of other factors such as confidence or friendship may be more important than motivating factors.

In one recent attempt to make sense of the different components involved in a second language motivation, Dornyei proposes a three level categorisation. The language level encompasses various orientations and motives related to aspects of the second language such as the culture and the community and the usefulness of the language. This will influence the goals learners set and the choices they make. The situation level includes components related to the course, the teacher and the group dynamics.

Motivation is a multifaceted construct which will be affected by situational factors. It also stresses the importance of what learners bring to the task of learning.

Language levelLearner levelLearning situational level

Course-specific motivational componentsTeacher- specific motivational componentsGroup-specific motivational components

6.4 A cognitive view on motivation

The central factor from the cognitive perspective is choice. People have choice over the way in which they behave and have control over their actions. This is in marked contrast to a behaviourist view which sees our actions as at the mercy of external forces such as rewards. Motivation is concerned with issues as why people decide to act in certain ways and what factors influence the choices they make, it also involves decisions as to the amount of effort people are prepared to expend. The role of the teacher becomes one of helping and enabling learners to make suitable choices.

6.5 a social constructivist perspective

A constructivist view centres around the premise that each individual is motivated differently. People will make their own sense of the various external influences that surround them in ways that are personal to them therefore, what motivates one person to learn a foreign language and keeps that person going until he or she has achieved a level of proficiency with which he or she is satisfied will differ from individual to individual.

6.6 a proposed definition of motivation

Cognitive definition that fits a social constructivist framework.

MotivationA state of cognitive and emotional arousalWhich leads to a conscious decision to act, andWhich gives rise to a period of sustained intellectual and/or physical effortIn order to attain a previously set goal (or goals)

The initial arousal may be triggered by internal causes (interest, curiosity) or external (another person or event). Enthusiasm is activated leading to make a conscious decision o act in certain ways in order to achieve a particular goal. Once the activity has begun, the individual needs to sustain the effort needed to achieve the goal, to persist. All this is influenced by the context and situation, and will be personal to the individual.

6.7 a model of motivationIt has three stages.

1. Reasons for undertaking a particular activity.2. Deciding to do something3. Sustaining the effort, or persisting

This will take place within a social context and culture which will influence choices made at each stage. The fist two stages may be concerned with initiating motivation while the last one involves sustaining motivation.

6.8 Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic: when the reason for performing an act is to gain something outside the activity itself, such as passing an exam or obtaining financial reward.

Intrinsic: when the experience of doing something generates interest and enjoyment, and the reason for performing the activity lies within the activity itself.

In reality this distinction is not watertight and many of our actions are prompted by a mixture of both reasons. Susan Harter views them as the opposite ends of a continuum. She distinguishes 5 separate dimensions that are considered to comprise motivation.

Intrinsic ExtrinsicPreference for challenge Vs Preference for easy workCuriosity/interest Vs Pleasing teacher/getting gradesIndependent mastery Vs Dependence of teacher in figuring out

problemsIndependent judgement Vs Reliance on teacher’s judgement about

what to doInternal criteria for success Vs External criteria for success

It is more realistic to suggest that one form of motivation influences another or to see all the factors interacting to affect each other.

Te first two dimensions are concerned with reasons for acting while the last two are more concerned with acting in a motivated way or sustaining the effort.

6.9 Perceived values of the activity

The greater the value that individuals attach to the accomplishment of or involvement in an activity, the more highly motivated they will be both to engage in it initially, and later to put sustained effort into succeeding in the activity.6.10 ArousalA state of arousal needs to be maintained to enable someone to put in the necessary effort to complete an activity satisfactorily. One major component is curiosity and it was the identification of it as a motivating variable that provided a significant landmark in cognitive theory. It appears to be important to ensure an optimum level of arousal and complexity. If a task is too complex it is likely to induce confusion and an avoidance to response rather than prove appealing.

When people are involved in activities considered highly motivating, the following conditions are likely to apply:

Mind and body are involvedDeep concentrationThey know what they want to doThey know how well they are doingThey are not worried about failingTime passes quicklyLose of ordinary sense of self-conscious gnawing worry that characterises much of daily life.

The term coined to describe the total involvement is called “flow experience”.

6.11 Learner’s beliefs about themselves

6.11.1 A sense of agencyThe sense people have of whether they cause and are in control of their actions, or whether they perceive that what happens to them in controlled by other people is an important determinant in motivation. These factors are part of a (sense of agency)

Locus of causalityWhether people see themselves (origins) or others (pawns) as the cause of their action. The consequences of feeling that the locus of causality lies basically within oneself are that choices, freedom and ownership of behaviour become issues of personal responsibility. Feeling oneself to be a pawn in the hands of others abrogates choices and discourages any sense of personal responsibility for one’s actions.

The discovery that someone else wants me to act in a way so much tat they are prepared to reward me for my actions, they my feelings of personal responsibility and freedom of choice may be diminished.

Locus of controlIt involves their perception of whether they are subsequently in control of their actions. The extent to which learners are in control of their learning will have an effect upon their motivation to be continually involved in learning the language. In contrast, learned helplessness, refers to learners that feel they lack control over what happens.

Effectiveness motivation

Individuals possess an inner drive towards mastery which differs from the need to achieve. Mastery involves succeeding in a task for its own sake while achieving entails succeeding in order to be better than other people.

Self-efficacy for learning refers to students beliefs about their capabilities to apply effectively the knowledge and skills they already possess and thereby learn new cognitive skills. This is one way of explaining the common distinction between capability and performance. I may have the skills but unless I believe that I am capable of doing so, I am unlikely to demonstrate those skills in that context.

6.11.2 Motivational styleIn seeking to make sense of different patterns of responses to perceived success and failure some theorist developed the notion of motivational style. The concept of Learned helplessness is useful to describe people who see failure as essentially due to a lack of ability and who feel they have no control over their actions.

The concept of mastery oriented explains failure in terms of lack of effort and seek clues in their mistakes for ways of improving their subsequent performance.

Self-worth concern: people with high self-worth concern will seek situations wehre they enhance their feelings and avoid situations in which they may fail or where a great deal of effort is involved.

The implication for teachers is that their learners’ interpretations of how their parents, peers and teachers perceive them exerts a critical influence on their motivational style this their motivation to learn a language.

6.12 Setting and achieving goals

Performance Vs mastery goalsPerformance: individual aim to look smartMastery: aim to become smarter

People’s choices for goals reflect both their beliefs about intelligence and ability and their typical behaviour patterns in achievement situations. The ones who choose performance view intelligence as something fixed and unchangeable. If their confidence is low they won’t improve their performance, if it is high they will account for success in terms of fixed intelligence.

Those who pursue learning goals (mastery) will believe that intelligence or ability is malleable and that effort is worthwhile.

If the goal is set by someone else, teachers will need to ensure that learners are ready, willing and able to achieve these goals in a focused and self-directed way. The term “effort-avoidance motivation” describes the behaviour of people who were motivated not to work to achieve goals set by others.

The teacher should focus on redirecting the energy put into effort-avoidance in creative rather than controlling ways. The attunement strategy involves the teacher negotiating with the learner all aspects of the work. The teacher is a mediator.

6.13 The involvement of significant others

Two main factors can be seen as contributing to learners’ motivation to participate in activities introduced by other people (teachers):

1. Personality or nature of the person introducing the activity.2. the way in which the person presents the activity and works with the learner

during the completion of that activity.

Teachers must: make their intentions clear, invest tasks with personal significance and explain clearly how to perform the activity.

6.13.1 Feedback

Behaviourists see it as a motivating influence. It can be given by means of a praise, comment or silence.Reinforcement: something that contributes to the recurrence of behaviour. It can be either positive or negative.Feedback is likely to increase motivation towards certain tasks.It provides information that enables learners to identify specific aspects of their performance, it should be helpful and motivating. Though if it fails, it can have the opposite effects.

A constructivist explanation in terms of meaning that rewards convey to learners.Praise or reward will convey messages about the kinds of behaviours expected.The future behaviour of learners will depend upon how they perceive the outcomes to be valued by significant others.

“Psychology for Language Teachers”. Williams, Marion & Burden, Robert (1997):

An Introduction to Educational Psychology: Behaviourism and Cognitive Psychology

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGYSchools of thought

Positivist Cognitive

Behaviourism on education

Language teaching method Info-processing

approachConstructivism

Structural approach Audiolingual app. Attention memory Learners make their own personal sense of the process of learning

Views on intelligence:

Fixed: Dynamic: all learners are capable of learning a language

DEFINITION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: The application of psychology to education by focusing on the development, evaluation and application of theories and principles of learning and instruction that can enhance lifelong learning.(Kaplan, 1990)However, it lacks a recognition that there is a difference between learning and educationConsequence: many learning activities are not necessarily educative. Many language tasks have little personal interest to the learners and have limited educational significance beyond the task itself.

APPROACHES TO ED. PSYCHOLOGY:Late 19th c. the discipline of psychology was deen to establish itself as a science on a par with the natural sciences.=> “scientific method”: a means of gathering data about human behaviour. => conflict between those who saw the area of study as what went on in the human psyche and those who saw it as a concentration upon observable behaviour.

1. Positivist school : psychologists sought to find the principles of human learning by investigating the behaviour of animals lower down the biological hierarchy of the animal kingdom, under rigorously defined conditions.=> “logical positivism”: knowledge and facts exist within the real world and can be discovered by setting up experiments in which conditions are carefully controlled and where hypotheses are set up and tested.=> this view could accept only empirical data as evidence that a phenomenon was occurring, and rejected anything which could not be seen or measured as unscientific. Eg. how rats learned their way through mazes to obtain food. But since the thoughts and feelings of humans were considered to be inaccessible to proper scientific investigation within this paradigm, they were not investigated. Behaviourism : has its roots within positivism and has influence on

language teaching. It arose out of the ideas of early learning theorists who attempted to explain all learning in terms of some form of conditioning eg. Pavlov demonstrated with dogs and other animals that a response (salivation) generated by one stimulus(food) could be produced by introducing a second stimulus(a bell) at the same time.=> S-R (Stimulus-Response) theory or classical conditioning. However, this proved to be of limited value in accounting for the enormous range of human actions. Meanwhile, in the USA a different rout was taken by behaviourists, who began to focus on the nature and shaping of responses in the S-R chain, and the conditions under which s-r relationships were formed.

Skinner : founder of modern behaviourism. Constructed a system of principles to account for human behaviour in strictly observable terms. Learning was the result of environmental rather than genetic factors. Introduced the notions of operants (the range of behaviours that organisms performed or were capable of performing) and reinforcement. Behaviourist theory thus came to explain learning in terms of operant conditioning: an individual responds to a stimulus by behaving in a particular way. In this way any range of behaviours could be gradually increased by reinforcing the behaviour required. In turning his attention to education, Skinner argued that this could be improved by the adoption of four procedures: teachers should make clear what is to be taught; tasks should be broken down into sequential steps; sts should be encouraged to work at their own pace by means of individualised learning programmes; learning should be “programmed” by incorporating the above procedures and providing immediate positive reinforcement. Behaviourist views were a powerful influence on the development of the audiolingual approach to language teaching. When it is applied to lang learning, lang is seen as a behaviour to be taught. Sts are given lang tasks in sequential steps. A small part of the foreign lang is presented as stimulus, to which the learner responds, by repetition or substitution. This is followed by reinforcement by the teacher. Learning a lang is seen as acquiring a set of appropiate mechanical habits (pattern drills, memorisation of dialogues), and errors are frowned upon as reinforcing “bad habits”; explanation of rules is generally given when the lang item has been well practised. Audiolingualism does have limitations: passive role of learners; there is little concern for what goes on inside the learners’ heads; audiolingual drills can be carried out with little attention to the meaning that the lang conveys; there is no negotiation of meanings; it does not allow for learning from mistakes. Nevertheless, structural or audiolingual approach has dominated lang teaching around the world.=> reasons: since in many countries teachers are not provided with a professional training, it’s easier for them to use the steps of presentation, practice, repetition and drills and to follow their coursebook; teach who lack confidence tend to be less frightened; but the mayor reason is that it is underpinned by a coherent psychological perspective (behaviourism), whereas more communicative approaches have lacked a coherent theory of learning. Another positive point is the part played by parents/teach in setting appropriate learning conditions and ensuring particular kinds of behavioural consequences.

Behaviourism’s negative point is that it is only concerned with observable behaviour.

2. Cognitive psychology : it is focused in the mental processes that are involved in learning. The learner is an active participant and uses mental strategies. However, the ways in which human thought has been investigated have themselves varied considerably. At one extreme are information theorists who have drawn the analogy of the brain as a highly complex computer and who seek to explain its working in terms of rules and models of how different aspects of learning take place. At the other extreme is the constructivist movement (Jean Piaget, George Kelly), concerned with ways in which individuals come to make their own sense of the world. Yet another aspect of cognitive psychology is the rich and varied literature on human intelligence. Some theories seek to explain what is intelligence and others to measure it by methods as IQ testing. These different approaches to cognition are information processing and constructivism.

Information processing : it is an approach to learning concerned with the way in which people take in information, process it and act upon it. Attention, perception and memory become the focus of the work. These theorists construct models to try to account for the way in which the human mind works. They claim to be able to predict the kind of mental processes that will be necessary for effective learning to take place and to identify precisely how and where any malfunctioning is occurring when a person is displaying learning difficulties. Attention: some learners have considerably difficulty in paying attention to their work and that invariably this will have a negative effect on their learning. Why do ppl differ so much in this respect and what can the teach do? One view suggests that attention should be seen as a process of filtering out an overwhelming range of incoming stimuli and selecting out only those stimuli which are important for further processing. Another view conceptualises att. as a cognitive resource which can be drawn upon as a means of concentrating out mental efforts. But as one becomes more skilful as in the case of reading, there is less need to call upon one’s full att. Memory : Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model describes memory in terms of a sensory register where stimuli are initially recorded for a brief amount of time before being passed into short-term memory, lasting no longer than 30 seconds. Because of its small capacity (about 7 items at any one time), it is necessary to find ways of breaking down complex material into related chunks before consigning these to the long-term memory

store. One way to do this is by rehearsal, in the form of repetition or association of meaning to what is to be remembered. Practical implications: memory is very important in learning a language. There is nothing to be gained from overloading learners’ short-term memory without some form of rehearsal (mnemonic strategies and involving more than one of the senses; linkword method: linking words in both the first and second language to construct a picture in the mind; advanced organisers: topical introduction to a lesson that orientates learners to the subject matter and relates new learning to what the learners already know). Intelligence and intelligence testing: early views arose out of the work of pioneers of the eugenics movement who were committed to the improvement of the human race by genetic engineering; taken up by psychometricians who sought ways to measure the so-called “g” (general intelligence) factor and gave rise to misguided notions that some races were intellectually superior to others (IQ tests, Carroll and Sapon’s Modern Lang Aptitude Test (MLAT)). These tests were based on the premise that ppl possess a fixed amount of ability at lang learning, and that this ability can be measured. A recent development of this traditional view stems from the work of the Harvard psychologist Gardner. He argues that instead of viewing intelligence as a unitary faculty, we should consider the possibility of different kinds of intelligences (7, one of which is linguistic intelligence). Vernon provided a helpful but unjustly neglected, perspective on the issue of whether and how intel. could be measured. Intel A: intel with which we are born. However, bc we are all affected by our environments, this genetic endowment can never be measured. Intel B: intel we display in all aspects of our everyday lives which is continually changing and very much context-bound. Intel C: represents what is measured by IQ tests. However, the kind of intelligence that these tests represent has not been as good as a central factor in learning and can even act as a barrier to teachers’ understanding of the learning process. Stengberg proposed a triarchic theory of intel which contains three major sets of components. Metacomponents: cognitive skills employed in planning and decision making=>recognition that a problem exists, awareness of various possible strategies to solve it. Performance: basic operations involved in actually solving any given task=>inferential thinking, drawing comparisons. Knowledge acquisition: processes used in acquiring new knowledge=> selecting relevant info, integrating it to what is already known. Since the

main emphasis in this approach is placed upon the conception of intel behaviour as the appropriate use of cognitive skills and strategies within specific contexts, it frees us from conceiving it as something that is static. It also enables us to see that ppl can become more intelligent.

Constructivism : although info processing approaches can be helpful, they place little or not emphasis upon the ways in which individuals seek to bring a sense of personal meaning to their worlds. To understand this kind of cognitive approach we need to look towards the constructivist movement. Piaget: the main underlying assumption of constructivism is that individuals are actively involved right from birth in constructing personal meaning from their experiences. The learner is brought into central focus in learning theory.

UNIT 3

“ Teaching English in the Primary Classroom” Susan Halliwell

1) Working with young language learners

Children come to language classroom with a well-established set of instincts, skills and characteristics which will help them to learn another language. For example, children:

♣ Are already very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily understanding the individual words,

♣ Already have great skill in using limited language creatively,♣ Frequently learn indirectly rather than directly, ♣ Take great pleasure in finding and creating fun,♣ Have a ready imagination,♣ Take great delight in talking.

1.1 Children’s ability to grasp meaning Children are able to understand what is being said to them before they understand the

individual words. Intonation, gesture, facial expressions, actions and circumstances all help to understand the language. In later life, we all maintain this first source of understanding and it is a fundamental part of human communication.

When children encounter a new language at school, they can call on the same skill to help them interpret the new sounds, new words and new structures. We must support and develop this skill and at the same time, we must not try to undermine the children’s willingness to use the skill.

1.2 Children’s creative use of limited language resources

In the early ages of their mother tongue development, children are creative with grammatical forms and with concepts. Children also create words by analogy, or they even invent completely new words which then come into the family vocabulary.

This phenomenon is fundamental to language development. We sit it in all children acquiring their mother tongue. We also know it in ourselves as adults when we are using another language. In the process, we may produce temporarily inexact and sometimes inept language, but we usually manage to communicate. In doing so we are actually building up our grasp of the language because we are actively recombining and constructing it for ourselves.

In order to make the most of the creative language skill the children bring with them, so we have to provide them with occasions when:

o The urge to communicate makes them find some way of expressing themselves,o The language demanded by the activity is unpredictable and isn’t just asking the

children to repeat set phrases, but is arranging them to construct language actively for themselves.

That is why games are so important. The fun element creates a desire to communicate and create unpredictability.

In fact, if children are impatient to communicate they probably will make more not fewer mistakes.

1.3 Children0s capacity for indirect learning Language activities which involve children in guessing what phrase or word someone has

thought of are good examples of indirect learning. Children are not trying to learn phrases: they are concentrating on trying to guess right. Guessing is actually a very powerful way of learning phrases and structures, but it is indirect because the mind is engaged with the task and is not focusing on the language. The process relates to the way we develop our mother tongue. So we acquire the language through conscious exposure and use.

Conscious direct learning seems to encourage worked-out accuracy. Unconscious indirect learning, or acquisition, encourages spontaneous and therefore more fluent use. As we want both accuracy and fluency to develop, we have to provide scope to both systems to operate in classroom. The children who like to get on with something no matter how it comes out will need encouragement to work at conscious accuracy, and others who are keen to be precise will need encouragement to risk getting things wrong sometimes in order to communicate. It is a good idea to set up real tasks in the language classrooms. For example, games provide an opportunity for the real using and processing of language while the mind is focused on the ‘task’ of playing the game.

1.4 Children’s instinct for play and fun No matter how well we explain an activity there is often someone in the class who

produces a version of their own. Sometimes it is better than the teacher’s original idea. Here, as in the guessing activities, their personalities emerge woven into the language use and they start to think for themselves

Through their sense of fun and play, children are living the language for real. We can see again why games have such a central role to play.

1.5 The role of imagination Children test out their versions of the world through fantasy and confirm how the

world actually is through imagination. In the language classroom this capacity for fantasy and imagination has a very constructive part to play.

If we accept the role of the imagination in children’s lives we can see that it provides another very powerful stimulus for real language use. We want to stimulate the children’s creative imagination so that they want to use the language to share their ideas.

1.6 The instinct for interaction and talk Of all the instincts and attributes that children bring to the classroom this is probably

the most important for the language teacher. It is one of the most powerful motivators for using the language. Children can learn about the language, but the only way to learn to use it is to use it. So our job is to make sure that the desire to talk is working for learning not against learning.

3) Being realisticLanguage classrooms are potentially noisy and demanding places. We need to be

realistic in our expectations of ourselves and the learners. On the contrary, being realistic should mean taking realities into account in such a way that good things can still happen.

3.1 Knowing which activities ‘stir’ a class and which ‘settle’ themIn a positive sense, ‘stir’ means that the activities wake them up, stimulate them. In

a negative sense, it may be that the activities over-excite them or allow them to become unconstructively restless. Meanwhile, there are other activities that seem to settle children. To put it positively, that means they will calm a class down. The negative side of this is to say that some activities will bore the class into inertia.

It is useful to make your own list from experience of your particular class:

Usually stirs Usually settleOral work CopyingCompetitions ColouringLotto Listening (if they have something

to do)Doing plays teacher and one student at a time

tests

3.2 Knowing which activities engage children’s minds and which keep them physically occupied

At the risk again of oversimplifying for the sake of clarity, we can identify 2 main types of involvement which could be described as:

♣ Mental engagement,

♣ Actual occupation.If the teacher has five prompt cards showing well-known places (Eg: parks,

supermarket, etc.), children are already familiar with the words and they are now able to produce the words by themselves. This activity makes them think, it engages their emotions, it is fun and they are eager to choose right. In this form then, the activity is mentally engaging in several ways. That is why children respond to it so well and why similar activities are very effective and popular.

This kind of mental and emotional engagement contrasts with actual occupationAgain it helps to make a list:

Mentally engaging Actually occupyingGames Reading aloudPuzzles WritingCompetitions Drawing Imagining RepetitionTalking about themselves

The teacher can do 2 things: Choose a style of work that in terms of its stir/settle potential suits a particular

class or occasion, Increase children’s involvement by adapting activities so that they offer both

mental engagement and actual occupation.

3.3 Choosing the style to suit the moodThere are occasions when children start the English class unsettled. It is

instinctive to calm children down in some way. However, recent language teaching has tended to follow patterns of work which do not help to calm children but instead stir them.

But if the class is getting silly we need to make sure we change to something settling.

There will be other occasions when you will want to achieve the reverse and wake the class up a little at the beginning of the lesson or part way through when interest is flagging. Again you can choose an activity which encourages that.

A teacher also can improve the quality of classroom interaction on the basis of the insights afforded by the stir/settle factor and the involvement factor. You can look for ways to combine mental engagement and mental occupation. This is helpful with large classes.

There are 3 things to remember: Keep the lesson simple Reuse materials Reuse ideas

3.4 Keeping the lesson simpleThere are 3 things to note:

1. We won’t help children to develop their capacity to concentrate if we jump from one topic to the next,

2. There are ways to varying the oral work so that it is making different demands on the children and therefore feels different even when the topic remains the same,

3. Even if a group of children cannot write English or if your syllabus suggests they should not write English in the early stages, there are kinds of pencil and paper work they can do..

So, variation does not mean we have to keep changing the topic. Instead, we can keep to the same topic and materials and change the work we do. And we can also keep an eye on the stir/settle and involvement factors.

The pace of the lesson is also managed so as to provide a shift from settling activity to stirring and back to settling. In this way, the teacher can quietly keep everything under control without that control having to be explicit.

3.5 Reusing materialsWe have to look for different ways in which we can use one set of materials and

thus reduce our preparation load. But we can also reduce our thinking preparation. It is possible to do this by identifying a core of activity types which we can use and reuse in order to teach different language contents.

3.6 Reusing a core of ideasThese activities are simple in principle and so they will transfer to all kinds of

topics and situations. Through using these activities, you will get to know which of them are good as stirrers and which act as settlers. You will develop ways of adapting them to actual as well as mental involvement.

UNIT 3“Teaching English to Children” Scott & Ytreberg

1) The Young Language LearnerFive and ten to eleven years old are the most vital years in a child’s development. Certain characteristics take into account in your teaching.

We are going to consider the ages of five to seven and the eight to ten years old.Five to seven years old

What five to seven year olds can do at their own level:• They can talk about what they are doing

• About what they have done or heard

• Plan activities

• Argue

• Use logical reasoning

• Use imaginations

• Use a wide range of intonation patterns

• Understand direct human interaction

Other characteristics of the young language learner They know that the world is governed by rules

They understand situations more quickly than language

Use language skills long before they are aware of them

The physical world is dominant at all times

They are very logical, what you say first happens first

Short attention and concentration span

Difficulty in knowing fact and fiction

Reluctant to share. Self-centered up to the age of six, sometimes pupils don’t want to work together because they don’t see the point

Adult world and child world are not the same. Adults usually find out by asking questions, but children don’t always ask

The will seldom admit that they don’t know something

Young children cannot decide for themselves what to learn

Love to play, learn best when they are enjoying themselves. But they also take themselves seriously and like to think that what they are doing is “real” work

Enthusiastic and positive about learning

Eight to ten years oldGeneral characteristics Relatively mature

Basic concepts are formed, decided views of the world

Tell the difference between fact and fiction

Ask questions all the time

Rely on the spoken world as the physical

Able to make decisions

Definite views about they like and don’t like

Developed sense of fairness

Work with others

Language development

Basic elements in place. Competent users of the mother tongue

o Understand abstracts

o Understand symbols

o Generalise and systematize

Similarities between learning one’s mother tongue and learning a foreign language. Depend on which mother tongue and on social and emotional factors. Eight to ten have language awareness and readiness

From five to ten are dramatic changes.

The magic age is around seven or eight

Seven or eight begin to make sense of adult world

What this means for our teaching

Words are not enough

Activities should include movements and involve the sense, objects and pictures and you should demonstrate what they have to do.

Play with the language

Let them experiment with very natural stage, in the first stages of foreign language learning too.

Language as language

Becoming aware of language as something separate from the events taking place takes time. Spoken world is often accompanied by the other clues to meaning-facial expression, movement, etc.

Reading and writing are important for the child’s growing awareness of language and for their own growth in the language.

Variety in the classroom

Variety is a must activity, pace, organization, voice.

Routines

Children benefit from knowing the rules and being familiar with the situation. They have systems and routines. They use familiar situations, familiar activities. They repeat stories, rhymes, etc.

Cooperation not competition

Avoid rewards and prizes. Other forms are more effective, like shared experiences are source of language work and atmosphere of involvement. Group the children.

Grammar

How good they are in a foreign language is not dependent on whether they have learnt the grammar rules or not. Few are able to cope with grammar; they are not usually mature enough to talk about it. Include the barest minimum of grammar, the best time to introduce simple grammar is when a pupil asks for an explanation or when you think a pupil will benefit from learning some grammar.

Correcting written work might or not be appropriate to compare what happens in the mother tongue in the same situation. Explanations should be given on a individual-group basis when the pupils themselves are asking the questions.

Assessment

It is useful for the teacher to make regular notes about each child’s progress, talking to children regularly about their work and encouraging, stressing the positive side of things and playing.

2) Class management and atmosphereWhat is an ideal teacherAs a teacher of young children it helps a lot if you have a sense of humour, you’re open-minded, adaptable, patient, etc. but if you are silent, reserved type, you can work your attitude and abilities.

AbilitiesLearn to sing or even play a musical instrument, mime, act and draw.AttitudesRespect your pupils and be realistic. As a teacher you have to appear to like all your pupils equally. Children need to know that the teacher likes them, feel secure in what you’re doing.Helping the children to feel secureOnce children feel secure they can be encourage to become independent. Pupils need to know what is happening. Respect your pupils. Whenever a pupil is trying to tell you something, accept whatever he or she says. Constant, direct correction is not effective.Ideal pupils shouldn’t laugh at others’ mistakes (rules of the class). Children of all ages are sometimes unkind to each other without meaning to be.Establish routines: talk about news, have a book of the month, birthday calendar, weather chart. These routines build up familiarity and security for both age groups.Give the children the responsibility for doing practical jobs. Avoid organized competitions. Language learning is a situation where everyone can win. Avoid giving physical reward or prizes. Include, don’t exclude.Don’t give children English names.The physical surroundingChildren respond well to surrounding which are pleasant and familiar. Put at the walls calendars, posters, postcards, pupils’ drawings, writing, etc, but still leaves you space to work. Encourage the children to bring in objects, tell the rest of the class a little bit about them in English. Mark files and boxes.Grouping the childrenNot all children will take to pair and groupwork at once. Five and six years are often happiest working alone, cooperation is something which has to be nurtured and learnt. They often develop a group identity. This type of arrangement makes it easier to see when pupils are ready cooperate with other pupils.Pair work Pair work is useful and efficient. Let pupils who are sitting near each other work together, don’t move desks

Establish a routine for pair work

Not all pairs will finish at the same time. Don’t be tempted to let the pair work continue until everyone has finished

Be on the look out for pupils who simply do not like each other

Go through what you want pupils to do before you put them into their pairs

Group workIntroducing group work

If your pupils are not used to work in groups, you can introduce them gradually to group work.

1. Having teaching groups – groups which you teach separately from the rest of the class

2. Introducing self-reliant groups – which are given something to do on their own

3. Start with just one group. Tell them clearly what the purpose is

4. Go through this process with all the groups before you let the whole class work in groups at the same time

Numbers Limit numbers in the group to between three and five.

Who works with whom?Children should not be allowed to choose their groups because this takes a lot of time and usually someone is left out. Sometimes group them according to ability.Classroom languageIf cooperation and communication are to be part of the process of learning a language as well as part of the process of growing up, then the sooner the pupils learn simple, meaningful expressions in English, the easier it will be.Here are some faces which all your pupils should learn as soon as possible. Note that they should be taught as phrases not as words or structures.Do remember “please” and “thank you”. So do the words for all the things in the classroom.Try to speak English as much of the time as you can, using mime, acting, puppets and any other means you can think of. Your pupils are unlikely to have the opportunity to hear English all day, keep your language simple but natural, and keep it at their level.You will have to decide for yourself how much mother tongue you use – it depends very largely on your own individual class. You can always convey the meaning of what you are saying by the tone of voice and body language – you don’t always have to switch languages.

The Natural Approach

Background

In 1977 Tracy Terrell (teacher of Spanish in California) outlined “a proposal for a ‘new’ philosophy of language teaching called Natural Approach”. This was an attempt to develop a language teaching proposal that incorporated the “naturalistic” principles researchers had identified in studies of second language acquisition. The Natural Approach grew out of Terrell’s experiences teaching Spanish classes, in elementary – to advanced-level classes and with other languages. Terrell joined forces with Stephen Krashen (applied linguist at the University of Southern California) in elaborating a theoretical rationale for the Natural Approach.

Krashen and Terrell identified the Natural Approach with what they call “traditional” approaches (defined as “based on the use of language in communicative situations without recourse to the native language” and grammatical drilling, or a particular theory of grammar) to language teaching. They noted that such “approaches have been called natural, psychological, phonetic, new, reform, direct, analytic, imitative and so forth”. There are important differences between the Natural Approach and the older Natural Method.

The Natural Method is another term for what by 1900 was the Direct Method: the method consisted of a series of monologues by the teacher with exchanges of question and answer with the pupil in the foreign language. With gesticulation, attentive listening and repetition the learner came to associate certain acts and objects with certain combinations of the sounds and finally he reproduced the foreign words or phrases.

The term natural emphasized that the principles underlying the method were believed to conform to the principles of naturalistic language learning in young children. Similarly, the Natural Approach is believed to conform to the naturalistic principles found in successful second language acquisition. Unlike the Direct Method it places less emphasis on teacher monologues, direct repetition and formal questions and answers, and less focus on accurate production of target-language sentences. In the Natural Approach there is an emphasis on exposure, or input, rather than practice.

Approach

Theory of language

Krashen and Terrell see communication as the primary function of language and they refer to the Natural Approach as an example of a communicative approach. The Natural Approach “is similar to other communicative approaches being developed today”. They reject earlier methods of language teaching, such as the Audiolingual Method, which viewed grammar as the central component of language. The major problem with these methods was that they were built not around “actual theories of language acquisition, but theories of something else (ex.: the structure of language)”. What Krashen and Terrell do describe about the nature of language emphasizes the primacy of meaning. The importance of the vocabulary is stressed (ex. : a language is essentially its lexicon and only inconsequently the grammar that determines how the lexicon is exploited to produce messages).

Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meanings and messages. Krashen and Terrell stated that “acquisition can take place only when people understand messages

in the target language”. They view language learning, as do audiolinguists, as mastery of structures by stages. “The input hypothesis states that in order for acquires to progress to the next stage in the acquisition of the target language, they need to understand input language that includes a structure that is part of the next stage (Krashen’s formula ‘I ┼ 1’)”. The Natural Approach thus assumes a linguistic hierarchy of structural complexity that one masters through encounters with “input” containing structures at the ‘I ┼ 1’ level.

Theory of learning

Krashen and Terrell make continuing reference to the theoretical and reearch base claimed to underlie the Natural Approach and that the method is unique in having such a base. “it is based on an empirically grounded theory of second language acquisition supported by scientific studies ina variety of language acquisition and learning contexts”. The principal tenets on which the Natural Approach theory is based are:

♣ The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis : it claims that there are 2 distinctive ways of developing competence in a second or foreign language. Acquisition refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for meaningful communication. Learning, by contrast, refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language are developed. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to verbalize this knowledge. Formal teaching is necessary for “learning” to occur, and correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules. Learning cannot lead to acquisition.

♣ The Monitor Hypothesis : it claims that we may call upon learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate, but that conscious learning has only this function. 3 conditions limit the use of the monitor:

1. Time: sufficient time to choose and apply a learned rule.2. Focus on form: focus on correctness or on the form of the output3. Knowledge of rules: they must be simple to describe and not require

complex movements and rearrangements.

♣ The Natural Order Hypothesis: it claims that the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order. Certain grammatical structures or morphemes are acquired before others in first language acquisition of English and in second language acquisition. Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during acquisition (not in learning) similar developmental errors occur.

♣ The Input Hypothesis: it claims to explain the relationship between what the learner is exposed to of a language (the input) and language acquisition. It involves 4 main issues:

1. The hypothesis relates to acquisition, not to learning.2. People acquire language best by understanding input slightly beyond their

current level of competence.3. The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly (it “emerges” in

time).

4. If there is sufficient quantity of comprehensible input (utterances that the learner understand based on the context in which they are used as well as the language in which they are phrased), I ┼ 1 will usually be provided automatically.

♣ The Affective Filter Hypothesis: Krashen sees the learner’s emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. A low affective filter is desirable (it impedes or blocks less the input). The hypothesis is built on research in second language acquisition, which has identified 3 kinds of affective or attitudinal variables:

1. Motivation2. Self-confidence3. Anxiety

This hypothesis states that acquirers with low affective filter seek and receive more input, interact, and are more receptive to the input they receive. Anxious acquirers have a high affective filter, which prevents acquisition.

To sum:

As much comprehensible input as possible. Whatever helps comprehension is important (ex.: visual aids help to the vocabulary). The focus in classroom: listening and reading. Speaking “emerges”. To low the affective filter: student work should center on meaningful

communication rather than on form and there should be interesting input.

Design

Objectives

The Natural Approach “is for beginners and is designed to help them become intermediates”. Students will be able to function adequately in the target situation. They will understand the speaker of the target language, and will be able to convey their requests and ideas. They need not know every word nor need the syntax and vocabulary to be flawless. They should be able to make meaning clear but not necessarily be accurate.

However, specific objectives depend on learner needs and the skill (reading, writing, listening, or speaking) and level being taught.Krashen and Terrell believe that it is important to communicate to learners what they can expect of a course as well as what they should not expect.

The syllabus

Krashen and Terrell approach course organization from 2 points of view. First, they list some typical goals for language courses and suggest which of them are the ones at which the Natural Approach aims. The goals are in 4 areas:

1. Basic personal communication skills: oral.2. Basic personal communication skills: written.3. Academic learning skills: oral.4. Academic learning skills: written.

The Natural Approach is primarily “designed to develop basic communication skills-both oral and written”. Communication goals “may be expressed in terms of situations, functions and topics”. This approach to syllabus design would appear to derive to some extent from threshold level specifications.

Content selection should aim to create a low affective filter by being interesting and fostering a friendly, relaxed atmosphere, a wide exposure to vocabulary and resist any focus on grammatical structures.

Types of learning and teaching activities

A class taught according to the Natural Approach, emphasis is on presenting comprehensible input in the target language. Teacher talk focuses on objects in the classroom and on he content of pictures. Learners are not required to say anything until they feel ready, but they are expected to respond to teacher commands and questions.

The teacher talks slowly and distinctly, asking questions and eliciting one-word answers. Acquisition activities are emphasized. Pair or group work may be employed, followed by whole-class discussion led by the teacher.

What characterizes the Natural Approach is the use of familiar techniques within the framework of a method that focuses on providing comprehensible input and a classroom environment that cues comprehension of input, minimizes learner anxiety, and maximizes learner self-confidence.

Learner roles

Learners’ roles are seen to change according to their stage of linguistic developments.

In the pre-production stage, students “participate in the language activity without having to respond in the target language”.

In the early-production stage, students respond to either-or questions, use single words and short phrases, fill in charts, and use fixed conversational patterns.

In the speech-emergent phase, students involve themselves in role play and games, contribute personal informations and opinions, and participate in group problem solving.

4 kinds of responsibilities for learners:1. Provide information about tjeir specific goals2. Take an active role in ensuring comprehensible input.3. Decide when to start producing speech and when to upgrade it.4. Where learning exercises are to be part, decide with the teacher the amount of

time devoted to them and complete and correct them.

Teacher roles

The Natural Approach teacher has 3 roles. First, the teacher is the primary source of comprehensible input in the target language. The teacher is required to generate a constant flow of language input while providing a multiplicity of non-linguistic clues to assist students in interpreting the input. There is a center-stage role for the teacher.

Second, the teacher creates a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly and in which there is low affective filter. This is achieved in part through such Natural Approach techniques as not demanding speech from the students before they are ready, not correcting their errors and providing subject of high interest to students.

Finally, the teacher must choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities, involving a variety of group sizes, content and contexts. The teacher is seen as responsible for collecting materials and using them.

The Natural Approach teacher has to communicate clearly and compellingly to students the assumptions, organization, and expectations of the method.

The role of instructional materials

The primary goal of materials in the Natural Approach is to make classroom activities as meaningful as possible by supplying “the extralinguistic context that helps the acquirer to understand and thereby to acquire” by relating classroom activities to the real world, and by fostering real communication among the learners. There primary aim is to promote comprehension and communication. (ex: pictures, visual aids, schedules, brochures, advertisements, maps and books.).

Procedure

To illustrate procedural aspects of the Natural Approach, there are some classroom activities that provide comprehensible input, without requiring production of responses or minimal responses in the target language:

1. Start with TPR (Total Physical Response) commands. At first the commands are simple.

2. Use TPR to teach names of body parts and to introduce numbers and sequence.

3. Introduce classroom terms and props into commands. Any item which can be brought to the class can be incorporated.

4. Use names of physical characteristics and clothing to identify members of the class by name. Using mime, pointing and context to ensure comprehension.

5. Use visuals, typically magazine pictures, to introduce new vocabulary and to continue with activities requiring only student names as response.

6. Combine use of pictures with TPR.7. Combine conversations about the pictures with commands and conditionals.8. Using several pictures, ask students to point to the pictures being described.

In all the activities, the instructor maintains a constant flow of “comprehensive input”, using key vocabulary items, gestures, context, repetition and paraphrase to ensure the comprehensibility of the input.

Conclusion

The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in nonformal settings. Such methods reject the formal (grammatical) organization of language. The Natural Approach is hence evolutionary rather than revolutionary in its procedures. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques it employs but in their in a method that emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatical perfect utterances and sentences.