Name & Structure with Formula, example + Radical [i.e. Functional group] with Prefix/Suffix[N.B.=In a structure of HC, Func. Group may be 1, 2, 3, or more=i.e. mono, di, tri, or poly; Even different func. groups may present in a HC’s structure simultaneously.]Hydrocarbon [has only C & H atoms]: Linear or branched Open-chain/Aliphatic & Linear or branched closed-chain/Ring-shaped/Cyclic [3, 4, 5 or 6(=form Phenyl/Aromatic/Aryl unsaturated HC) carbon based ring] or Mixed. Functional group=(cyclo)-alkane (=alkyl/saturated-i.e. C-C single bond), -alkene (=unsaturated-i.e. C-C double bond) or –alkyne (=unsaturated-i.e. C-C triple bond) [Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.]

Alcohol/Spirit, Enol (including Phenol=Phenyl /Aromatic unsat. HC+ ‘hydrophilic’ Hydroxyl group-OH) [has HC Group ‘R’s 1 C atom + 1 -OH group]: Spirit is saturated (cyclo)-alkane + hydroxyl group, Enol is unsat. HC+ hydroxyl group. [Suffix is –ol both for spirit &Enol, -ole means ‘absence of –OH group’]. Example of Spirit- sorbitol (via hydrogen atom induced reduction of corn sugar ), glycerol (i.e. 1,2,3-propane-triol, with 20 spirit; via treatment of fat)When no, 1 or 2 H atom remain attached with –OH group containing func. C atom, it is referred to as Tertiary, Secondary & Primary Spirit/Enol respectively. [Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.]Thiol=-SH group containing (alcohol like) organic compound.

Organic molecule is composed of carbon, hydrogen & other atoms like oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur etc. Source=living [=unsaturated (cyclo)-alkene] or decomposed[-i.e. coal, natural gas, petroleum=saturated (cyclo)-alkane] organism & Synthetic (i.e. Processed/ Engineered by Scientists). Use=Food, Medicine, Plastics etc.

Ether [2 R + 1 O atom]: [Prefix is –oxa or –oxy ], Example-oxacyclohexane, ethoxyethane/Di-ethylether etc.[Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.]

Ketone [2 R + 1 Carbonyl group =CO]:[Suffix is –one], Example-Di-methyl ketone/acetone/ propanone [a product of fat metabolism; break into water & CO2], carbonyl chloride (COCl2), camphor, many steroid, some fragrance, some sugar-fructose etc.[Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.Hex etc.]

Carboxylic acid[non-cyclic HC + Carboxyl group -COOH]: [Suffix is –oic or –ic ], Example-methanoic/formic acid, ethanoic/acetic acid, fatty acid (with 4-18 or 22 carbon atom in HC) etc.=They are formed by HC + Carboxyl group [this group comes via Carbon di oxide],=This group has 2 parts: acyl group [=CO, example: acyl chloride group (-COCl)] + hydroxyl group [-OH] [Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.]

Ester[has HC Group ‘R’s 1 C atom + 1 Carboxylate group -COO]: [Suffix is –oate or –ate ], Example-methanoate/formate, ethanoate/acetate, sulfonate (a detergent), fatty acids’ salts (i.e. wax, oil/fat=palmitin, stearin etc) etc.=In all (organic) fat/oil & most wax , alcohol (or its HC derivative) remains with carboxylic (i.e. organic) or inorganic acid (or its salt) & form ester (with elimination of water) but it is not ionized in solution, unlike salt; Again water can revert those ester into its alcohol & acid (i.e. hydrolysis); Cyclic HC based ester is called lactone; In a HC, if this group is >3=poly-ester HC; With metallic base, ester form soap. [Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.]

Aldehyde[has HC Group ‘R’s 1 C atom + 1 Aldehyde group -CHO]: [Suffix is –al or -in], Example-methanal/formaldehyde, ethanal/acetaldehyde, benzenal/benzaldehyde, acrolein etc.[Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.etc.] [Contraction of modern Latin ‘alcohol dehydrogenatum’=dehydrogenated alcohol]

Amine[HC’s 3/2/1/0 group replacing 3/2/1/0 H atom of 1 Ammonia molecule]: [Suffix is –ine ], Example-caffeine (from tea, coffee bean), theobromine (from cocoa bean), {peptide=i.e. low-wt. polymer of AAs/protein=i.e. high-wt. polymer of AAs-formed by all 20} AAs (contain Primary amine=-NH2 at N terminal) etc. When 3/2/1 H atom of NH3 molecule is replaced-termed as Tertiary (-N), Secondary (-NH) & Primary [its Prefix is –Amino=-NH2] Amine respectively. [Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, Gk. Prefix=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.But, Pent, Hex etc.]

Imide [20amide=i.e. -NH + 2 acid/acyl group=i.e. -CO]: e.g. pyrimidine (pyridine + imide) molecule-i.e. cytosine, thymine & uracil.

Amino Acid[1 Carboxyl group –COOH & 1 Primary Amine group –NH2 with a common Alpha Carbon]: [Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.etc.]

Amide/Peptide/1 Acyl-1 Secondary Amine conjugate= –CONH; All 20 AAs are linked together by this ‘peptide bond’ between their carboxyl (COOH) and primary/alpha amino (NH2) group: [Suffix is –amide or Prefix + Suffix as Aza- + -one], Example-butanamide, aza-cyclohexane-2-one, nylon (polyamides), All protein/peptone (polypeptide & 1st digested form of protein)/peptide (linear molecule of amino acids & simple form between peptone and AA) etc.[Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex Gk. Prefix (including Func. Carbon atom number)=Meth/Form, Eth/Acet, Prop, But, Pent, Hex etc.etc.]

Different levels of macro- & micro-world with common term, formula & in binary system:1.Deka/Deci=Ten/Tenth=101/10-1 (i.e. 0.1)2.Hecto/Centi=Hundred/Hundredth=102/10-2

3.Kilo/Mili=Thousand/Thousandth=103/10-3 =210

4.Mega/Micro=Million/Millionth=106/10-6 =220

5.Giga/Nano=Billion/Billionth=109/10-9 =230

6.Tera/Pico=Trillion/Trillionth=1012/10-12 =240

7.Peta/Femto=Quadrillion/Quadrillionth=1015/10-15 =250

8.Exa/Atto=Quintillion/Quintillionth=1018/10-18 =260

9. =Sextillion/Sextillionth=1021/10-21 =270 10. =Septillion/Septillionth=1024/10-24 =280

11. =Octillion/Octillionth=1027/10-27 =290

12. =Nonillion/Nonillionth=1030/10-30 =2100

13. =Decillion/Decillionth=1033/10-33 =2110

14. =Vigintillion/Vigintiillionth=1063/10-63 15. =Centillion/Centillionth=10303/10-303

Chemistry=study of structure, property & interaction of molecule. In AD 100 , an effort (called ‘alchemy’) to convert a metal into gold raises this branch. However, in 18th to 19th century-chemists learned elemental process & interaction in forming different states/phases and created new & natural useful molecule (by separating & assembling molecule in many ways)-e.g. dye (e.g. anthracene/rhodamine B/fluorescein molecule), detergent, alloy, plastic (replacing wood, glass & metal), artificial fiber (replacing cotton & wool), medicine, perfume, fertilizer, insecticide etc

Chemistry is ‘the central science’ lying between physics (that focuses on a single molecule) & biology (that focuses on many precisely regulated life processes-e.g. grow, maintain, reproduce itself, use & store energy). [French chemist Antoine Lavoisier is founder of modern chemistry-told that one-fifth of air was oxygen which causes burning or rusting and also first gave law of conservation of mass; English chemist Robert Boyle first separated chemistry from alchemy; Belgian chemist van Helmont pioneered iatrochemistry-early form of biochemistry; Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius measured atomic mass, foretold that compound has cation & anion inside, gave ‘radical’ theory and coined term ‘catalyst’]

Mechanics=branch of physics/mathematics that deals with effect of energy/force on a system/device/machine (i.e. how force/energy causes a system to work).

Dynamics/Kinetics (in physics)=branch of mechanics that deal with motion of a system/device/machine (i.e. how force/energy produces motion on a system). [mechanics=]

Kinetics (in chemistry)=branch of chemistry that study rate of reaction [in biochemistry-it is called ‘metabolism’]

Physical chemistry=study of chemical bonding & molecular structure-e.g. presence of weak chemical bond=hydrogen bond between complementary base pair of 2 strand of DNA.

Biomolecule [studied in ‘biochemistry’-to ‘predict & control’ biomolecular reaction inside cell so that molecule to diagnose & treat metabolic and microbial disease, for boosting industrial & agricultural productivity, disposal of industrial waste is possible-along with help of recombinant DNA technology/genetic modification/engineering where gene is located/mapped and transgenic cell & desired molecule (e.g. insulin, GH, interferon=a protein made by body’s cell that inhibit viral replication etc protein) is produced; chimeraplasty/gene therapy=complex of synthetic DNA & RNA to modify gene-used to treat genetic disease etc]=

Photon capturing molecule (e.g. rhodopsin, chlorophyll etc=to drive chemical reaction), Helper molecule (e.g. cofactor/promoter/coenzyme molecule=to help enzyme action), intracellular ‘energy’ transporter molecule,

Chromosome [complex of protein-‘histone, nonhistone’ & DNA; histone compacts part (=called ‘nucleosome’) of DNA & nonhistone compact nucleosome even further; first artificial human chromosomes were created in 1997]=in eukaryote, remain inside nucleus as linearly fashioned DNA but in bacteria/archaebacteria-as circularly fashioned DNA; it permit DNA to transcribe/replicate; (cap-like) telomere=in eukaryotic cell-gene located at tip of chromosome-determining lifespan of its cell; (knot-like) centromere=in eukaryotic cell-part of chromosome-attached with microtubule of spindle-ensuring proper placing of chromosome inside cell during reproduction (both mitosis & meiosis); Sexually reproducible cell (e.g. in mammal/bird/other organism) contain ‘identically paired’ chromosome (one from each sex) except inside sex cell (i.e. egg cell/sperm cell)-where only inherited gender’s gene remain; ‘Y’ chromosome is 1/3rd of ‘X’ chromosome size & miss some gene-which is mitigated by ‘X’ chromosome esp. in male offspring=e.g. gene for eye color come from ‘X’ chromosome in male fruit fly.

NA-a polynucleotide chain residing inside chromosome [site=cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria; store & transfer genetic information; act as guide for protein formation & read by protein molecule-‘enzyme/catalyst’ of cell=thereby, RNA act as both guide & catalyst in protein making; messenger RNA (formed during transcription by ‘transcriptase’ from DNA template to copy/transcribe gene) copy/transcribe ‘base sequence’ from DNA strand (or vice versa-as seen in retrovirus) & go to ribosome=a complex of protein & ribosomal RNA=where AA (attached with transfer RNA) from cytoplasm-are assembled in sequence as per mRNA’s genetic code; RNase -a protein that catalyze ribonucleoprotein (a chromosomal molecule) to form RNA & protein=when formed RNA, by autocatalysis, catalyze further ribonucleoprotein and make more RNA; 3 nucleotide base sequence/codon/triplet/genetic code word refer one AA=thus a protein of 100 AA has 300 nucleotide base sequence; codon lie only on one strand of DNA & other DNA strand just help in replication/copying/transcription during translation/protein synthesis=when change in codon occur mostly (=called mutation-that create silent/harmful/beneficial new, nonexistent protein) following energy exposure/chemical reaction; during cell division/reproduction=each DNA strand act as separate template; human DNA has >3 billion base pair-i.e. 20000 to 25000 triplet/gene word code; translocation=change in part/section in chromosome-e.g. attachment of broken part in other part; nondisjunction=during meiosis-failure of paired member of chromosome to separate-e.g. as seen in trisomy 21/Down syndrome] [e.g. plasma cell transcribe its antibody genes into 20,000 messenger-RNA molecules that serve 200,000 ribosome, enabling the cell to produce and secrete 2,000 identical antibody molecules per second]

Inosine (intermediate molecule between adenosine & adenine)=adenosine deaminase (ADA) enzyme break adenosine (i.e. adenine + ribose) into harmless inosine-that finally convert to adenine (a purine base of DNA); ADA deficiency (a genetic disorder –e.g. SCID-where both B& T cell lack DNA formation-hence their development) impair DNA formation; ADA inhibitor is used to treat cancer (so that DNA synthesis inside cancer cell is prevented).

Pressure/Tension=Fluid (i.e. liquid/gas) molecule-mediated force exerted at right angle equally/uniformly in all direction on a system’s surface. [unit=NSM in SI; PSI or KSC may be used]Heat=Temperature=determines phase (& also property) of molecule.Mass=Volume=refers to space (measured with length/breadth, width & depth/height) inside (i.e. occupied by) a matter [unit=cubic unit]. Area=refers to space (measured with length/breadth & width) inside (i.e. occupied by) a matter [unit=square unit]. Density=refers to mass (of a matter) per (one) volume. increasing temperature decreases density of liquid. [relative density/specific gravity=ratio of a substance density to standard (water for solid & liquid molecule, air for gas molecule) at same temp. & pressure].

Phase rule is applicable to heterogeneous system-in which two or more physically distinct phases are in equilibrium. A system cannot contain more than one gas phase but can contain any number of liquid and solid phase.

Gas=its composing molecules remain unattached fully that no shape, sliding property or volume is rendered. [Actually, Gas particles mildly attract (van dar waal force) each other at intermediate range but strongly repel each other at close range; this mutual (electron-electron) repulsion prevents neighboring particles from getting too close-unless temp. is lowered or pressure is reduced=at which gas forms liquid>solid through retaking strong attractive/cohesive intermolecular force]. And like liquid, gas takes shape of a container and additionally (but unlike liquid) a given amount/kg/liter of gas expand & fills the whole container. At a fixed temp., volume of a gas reduces with raising pressure on this gas [17th-century English chemist Robert Boyle’s law]; At a fixed pressure, volume of a gas reduces with lowering temp. of this gas [18th-century two French chemists Jacques Charles and Joseph Gay-Lussac’s law]; Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to sum of separate pressures that each of gases would exert if it alone occupied whole volume [19th-century English chemist JohnDalton’s law of partial pressures of mixed gases]; At a fixed temp. & pressure, same volume (in fact, in one gram) of different gas (in fact, including all solid & liquid matter) carries equal number of atoms/molecules/ions [19th-century Italian chemist Amedeo Avogadro’s law/number-6.022 × 1023]; [Boyle's, Charles’s, Dalton's, and Avogadro's law are collectively called kinetic theory of gas]; Thermodynamics=branch of physics where different energy conversion is studied & how they affect temperature, pressure, volume, mechanical action & work;

Used to render very low temperature in cryogenic research (which is helpful for making better superconductor, more powerful computer, faster communication etc); As a safe/sound energy source-(large scale produced & stored) hydrogen gas is burnt in air to produce energy (along with pure water as a by-product); Oxygen (&/or chlorine) gas is directly injected into stream and sewage system (to neutralize waste by oxidation-thus preventing waste from reacting with environment); Understanding of chemical reaction within gases/vapors are important to prevent destruction of ozone layer and reduce production of pollutant gases.

Oxygen combines with a molecule & causes burning (i.e. produce heat/raise temperature/create warm or hot state/emit Infra-red radiation/force/energy; e.g. candle, gas stove, fireplace etc), hence oxygen is used as fuel in rocket & combine with carbon to produce CO2. CO2 are provided under pressure in carbonated beverages (e.g. soda, beer etc). Natural gas (i.e. methane/propane/butane) or its derivative (with air/oxygen) is burned to create heat energy/IR radiation in stove, heating system, cloth dryer, aerosol propellant. Liquefied (done at extremely low temperature-e.g. nitrogen, helium-its liquid state is much cool than liquid nitrogen) gas acts as coolant/freezing agent for perfect functioning of superconductor & electromagnet in particle accelerator & nuclear fusion research. Helium (much less dense than air & used to fill party and weather balloon & airship)/argon (used inside Incandescent light bulb-as its extremely hot filament would disintegrated by air)/krypton/xenon/nitrogen provide inert working environment (as they do not react with most elements) in chemical & electronics industry (e.g. to produce ultrapure silicon and germanium semiconductor-which are marred by open air), metallurgical processes, high-temperature welding etc.

Solid=its composing molecules remain attached rigidly that a shape/size & volume is rendered. Crystalline solid has repetitive 3D internal structure throughout its shape (called long-range order-revealed by X-ray exam.)-e.g. salt & sugar (2 ionic bonded), diamond, graphite, silicon carbide (SiC), sand & quartz (SiO2) (5 covalently bonded-ensuring comparatively hardest ever ionic bonded crystalline solid than).[At a fixed temp., crystalline solid melts/softens-provided its structure is chemically not changed by heat before it melts, as happens with sugar]. Amorphous/non-crystalline solid has haphazardly arranged molecules/atoms/ions/group, e.g. glass [& amorphous/non-crystalline solid melts/softens bit by bit as temperature is raised-i.e. not at a fixed temp., eventually becoming liquid; crystal lattice and high degree of intermolecular cohesive force ensures its hard/brittle nature and high melting point-e.g. table salt melts at 8000C ]. Ionic bonded crystalline metal has fixed positive ion & freely moving electron (-ensuring good conductor of electricity & heat when joined to electric potential) Gallium, cesium & rubidium melt ( i.e. form liquid) near room temperature (i.e. at 20C-30 C which is lower than our body temp). Crystalline (i.e. solid) compound has intermolecular weak force & melts below room temp., e.g.-solid water (i.e. ice), solid sulfur dioxide/SO2, solid carbon dioxide (i.e. dry ice), crystalline organic compound etc. Adsorption-accumulation/adhesion (via sharing its electron with absorbent) of molecule/ion (i.e. adsorbate) on liquid/solid (i.e. adsorbent)’s surface. Porous or numerous fine droplet of adsorbent adsorbs more adsorbate-as solid’s more surface area remains exposed.

Liquid=its composing molecules remain attached weekly that sliding property & volume is rendered. Bromine & mercury are liquid elements at room temperature. All plants and animals depend on liquid (water) to transport nutrients and wastes. Liquid is also important in cleaning (i.e. to dissolve and carry away solid particles) & painting (i.e. to evenly spread colored particles with brush/roller on a surface and a coating is formed on a surface when the colored particles are solidified on exposure to air). Many liquid fuels are burned to get energy-e.g. oil to heat house & gasoline to power automobile engine etc. Not truly like crystalline solid (e.g. table salt, sugar etc), liquid crystal (that comes from various organic molecule) consists of rod-like molecules paralleled together & slide past one another (i.e. Flow property)-causing change in optical property (i.e. opacity/transparency) due to voltage-mediated change in their direction/order/arrangement. [LC acts as solid at low temperature & high pressure and as liquid at high temperature & low pressure] At a fixed pressure & temp.-inside liquid/solid molecule, (electron-electron) repulsion makes its given volume difficult to reduce=principle of brake in automobiles. At boiling point, vapor pressure of a liquid boiling in an open container becomes equal to pressure of earth’s atmosphere above the liquid. Non-polar (i.e. evenly distributed electric charged) liquid like hydrocarbon (e.g. propane, butane, gasoline/petrol, methane) joins with other identical molecule with weak inter-molecular force-so relatively less heat energy (SI unit=Joule) is needed as boiling point-thereby remains in gaseous state at room temp. Superheating (i.e. temp. reached above boiling point) of liquid molecule is possible if its container is smooth walled (not rough walled).

Viscosity-refers to amount of liquid required to resist its flow property. A liquid molecule having strong inter-molecular attractive/cohesive force (e.g. water, not propane) and having large, complicated structure (e.g. heavy oil) show more viscosity. More heat energy to a liquid molecule decreases its viscosity property. Polar liquids are miscible with each other, also nonpolar liquids are miscible with each other. Surface tension/pressure of liquid-inter-molecular attractive/cohesive force at center of a liquid structure is stronger than at surface area of that liquid structure-moreover, like every matter, liquid structure maintains less energy to render its structure-thereby liquid’s surface area remains small. Capillary action of a liquid occurs when attraction of liquid’s molecules for themselves lowers from their attraction to solid (i.e. adhesive force) with which liquid contacts. However, for mercury-attraction between these molecules is stronger than their attraction to glass tube/capillary tube-i.e. adhesion force exceeds cohesion force. [Liquid’s surface tension is lowered by wetting agent/Surfactant/detergent/drug that causes liquid to extend its surface-i.e. to flow/spread freely]. Exceptionally=At freezing/melting point, solid state of water, gallium & bismuth become less dense (i.e. more voluminous) than its liquid state-that’s why, they float on their liquid state. Osmosis equalizes concentration of solution-on both side of semi permeable membrane (membrane that allows only smaller-sized part of mixture to pass through it, e.g. CM). Osmosis makes sugar, salt etc food preservative-as when bacteria encounters sugary or salty food, osmosis makes that bacteria dehydrated. [complete dehydration (which is also a process of food preservation) in an organism stop enzymatic activity-so, even no microorganism can grow on that organism-for same reason; moreover precise control of temperature, humidity & gas composition in atmosphere prolong longevity of an organism; Irradiation also kill microbe & enzyme-ensuring an organism stay fresh-however, toxic molecule may be formed inside irradiated organism]

Acid-Base/alkali-Salt system [all 3 are electrical conductor=type-weak & strong (i.e. 100% ionization/dissociation or larger value in equilibrium constant=Ka) conductor]-

(FR &) Acid/anion/non-metal/electron-taker=i.e. H+ or H3O+ donor (from base/metal/cation)/oxidant [that oxidize base/alkali/cation/metal/alcohol/sugar-i.e. make base/metal/cation releasing electron; often cause oxidative damage to base/metal/cation molecule-i.e. decompose polymer into monomer] & Base/alkali/alcohol/cation/metal/reductant/electron-donor=i.e. H+ or H3O+ taker (to acid/non-metal/anion) [that reduces acid/anion/non-metal-i.e. make acid/anion/non-metal taking electron] are molecule [i.e. ion/radical or charged compound] having opposite property (i.e. they are joined by covalent/ionic bond & form salt/ester-i.e. acid-base conjugate pair + water). Acid is formed when charged hydrogen atom bind with nonmetal atom & they are judged strong/weak depending on tenacity of that bond. The weaker the acid, the less easily the bond is broken.

[Alkali=hydroxide & carbonate of alkali metal & ammonium, including hydroxide of calcium, strontium & barium; Alkali absorb proton from an acid in solution; it feels slippery & is electrical conductor]

Water is amphoteric (i.e. acts as either acid or base)-as in presence of strong acid (i.e. that has greater tendency to dissociate than does water), water acts as base [e.g. HCl + H2O H⇄ 3O+ + Cl-] & in presence of strong base (i.e. that has greater tendency to dissociate than does water), water acts as acid [e.g. NH3 + H2O NH⇄ 4

+ + OH-].

[2 type of Covalent bond=acid-base type (i.e. electrons release from base) & free radical type (each electron from 2 ‘free radical’/2 base)].

pH=(negative logarithm regarding) conc. of hydronium ion (H3O+ which is formed by bonding of H+ with water molecule; H+ comes from added acid in that aqueous solution; OH- comes from added base/alkali in that aqueous solution) in aqueous solution. This conc. is expressed in mole/liter. pH meter (& also titration method ) measures acidity/alkalinity of a solution. Pure water (at 220 C) contains equal conc. of H3O+ and hydroxyl (OH-) ion [having conc. of 1 x 10-7 mole/liter for each type of ion; =-log 10(1 x 10-7)=simply 7] making it-a neutral solution. Thus a solution become acidic when conc. of H3O+ ion exceed (ranging from max. 1-0 to 1 x 10-6.9 mole/liter) conc. of hydroxyl (OH-) ion & similarly a solution become basic/alkaline when conc. of hydroxyl (OH-) ion exceed conc. of H3O+ ion (ranging from min. 1 x 10-14 to 1 x 10-7.1 mole/liter).

Buffer or Buffer solution=Weak acid & its conjugate base [after dissociation of weak acid in solution=‘anion’ part is called ‘conjugate base’] that resist change in predetermined pH (i.e. hydrogen ion conc.) of solution-by using up added small amount of strong base or acid respectively. In nature, soil/sea water/fluid in living organism is strongly buffered.

Mixture=is physical blending (or dissolution) of 2 or more molecules. Homogeneous mixture (also called solution) has same ratio of physically blended molecules throughout it (i.e. inside the mixture; e.g. clean air, vinegar, salt water), while Heterogeneous mixture has different ratio of physically blended molecules throughout it (i.e. inside the mixture); e.g. suspension=visibly large solid particle (which settle out on standing) in a fluid (i.e. liquid or gas) medium=e.g. sand/silt in water; colloid [intermediate mixture between suspension & solution]=small/fine (i.e. at atomic level, seen by ultra-microscope/dark-field microscope & electron microscope, not by ordinary optical microscope) solid/liquid/gas particle in a solid/liquid/(liquid form-done under pressure) gas medium.E.g. (of colloid dispersion)-Liquid particle + Liquid medium [i.e. emulsion]=oil/fat in water (i.e. milk, cream, Ice-cream), oil/fat in egg yolk (i.e. mayonnaise), polysaccharide in water [often, an emulsifier/stabilizer/thickener/emulsifying agent/Surfactant/wetting agent/gelling agent is added in emulsion to maintain suspension of particles via lowering their cohesive force]Liquid particle + Gas medium=any [e.g. insecticide] spray/aerosol (having high proportion of liquid particle), foam/froth/lather, cloud (having high proportion of gas medium), fog/mist (i.e. cloud just above ground),Solid particle + Liquid medium [i.e. ‘sol’]=pigment particle in oil (i.e. paint), jelly (a ‘gel’-special sol made by solid colloid particle in liquid crystal=giving elastic & firm nature)Solid particle + Gas medium=cigarette smoke, solid pollutant (e.g. dust) in air (creating ‘Smog’)

More E.g. of colloid-

Dispersed particle Dispersion medium (solvent like) Example with nature

Gas Gas None (all are solution)

Gas Liquid Whipped cream (Foam)

Gas Solid Marshmallow (solid foam)

Liquid Gas Fog (Aerosol)

Liquid Liquid Milk (emulsion)

Liquid Solid Butter (solid emulsion)

Solid Gas Smoke (Aerosol)

Solid Liquid Paint (sol)

Solid Solid Ruby glass (solid sol)

Protein molecule(which is non-polar/isoelectric/equipotential/net zero charge in solution at PI pH) property-Soy/Whey/Ovoalbumin is used to create ‘Foam’ in making food; acts as ‘emulsifier’ for ‘oil/fat in water’ type emulsion & foam; ‘dough’ formation-esp. by prolamine [from AA=proline] & glutenin protein in cereal-like wheat; ‘gel/clot/coagulate/semisolid mass/aggregated suspensoid or colloid particle’ formation-by protein in egg, meat, yogurt, cheese, soybean(-i.e.Tofu), blood [Temp., Enzyme, pH, Agitation promote ‘disulfide’ bonding among these sulfur AAs]; ‘Viscosity’ increasing-seen in liquid food-like sauce, soup, cream, beverage; ‘water molecule retention/absorption/hydration’ property is seen in soup, sausage, beverage [this also leads to ‘viscosity’ & ‘gelation’ property, Surrounding low salt conc. & low temp. increases its hydration]; ‘precipitation’ of protein increases at increased temp. & PI pH [this also leads to ‘foaming’ & ‘emulsifier’ property] .Enzymatic degradation of (food) protein’s primary structure (i.e. PPC) into Toxic molecule-Bacterial [e.g. E. coli, Proteus, Lactobacillus etc] ‘decarboxylase’ enzyme produces ‘amine’ [that causes food poisoning] after removing carboxyl group from AA during bacterial degradation of food protein. [e.g. ‘histamine’ from AA=histidine].AA in food protein is degraded into (primary) alcohol-via yeast (unicellular fungus)’s enzyme induced removal of its both (primary) amine [creating distinctive aroma/smell & pungent taste of alcoholic beverage] & carboxyl group and addition of hydroxyl group.

[Distortion/denaturation of secondary, tertiary & quaternary (not PPC/primary) structure of protein is reversible or irreversible and alters function/property of affected protein]

In a solution, molecule having maximum proportion is usually called solvent, while molecule having minimum proportion is usually called solute. Both solute & solvent may be solid, liquid or gas. Usually there remains a solvent & one or more solutes. Phase/State of solution depends on that of solvent. Example=solid solute e.g. salt + liquid solvent e.g. water=liquid solution ‘salty water/Brine’, liquid solute e.g. mercury + solid solvent e.g. silver=solid solution ‘mercury in silver’, gas solute e.g. hydrogen + solid solvent e.g. palladium=solid solution ‘hydrogen in palladium’,solid solute e.g. silver + solid solvent e.g. gold=solid solution (or Alloy) ‘silver in gold’,liquid solute e.g. alcohol + liquid solvent e.g. water=liquid solution ‘alcohol in water’,gas solute e.g. oxygen + liquid solvent e.g. water=liquid solution ‘oxygen in water’,gas solute e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide + gas solvent e.g. nitrogen=gas solution ‘air’.

Any mixture (esp. alloy-i.e. metal + metal/non-metal solution) having lowest freezing/melting point among its different ratios, is called eutectic. Eutectoid (solid-phase analog of eutectic) has better physical characteristics than do its different ratios.

Lightweight, high-strength & Hi-Temperature withstanding alloy of aluminum, beryllium, titanium, tantalum, niobium, tungsten, cobalt & nickel are used in space vehicles. As superconductor at extremely low temperature, niobium-tin alloy is used. In desalination plant, copper, nickel & titanium alloy is used to resist corrosive effect of boiling salt water. In nuclear reactor, alloy containing beryllium, boron, niobium, hafnium, zirconium are used for their nuclear absorption characteristics. Also, alloy of metal and carbon (carbides), boron (borides), oxygen (oxides), silicon (silicides), and nitrogen (nitrides) take advantages of high-strength, Hi-Temperature withstanding, oxidation resistance, ductility & shock resistance of metal.Powder metallurgy-powdered metals are squeezed under high pressure, then heated upto their sub-melting temperature-resulting solid/alloy solution. E.g. Cerium (‘Ce’-most abundant metal among rare earth group) + other metals (=cermet alloy) which is used in ceramics etc.

Ion implantation (to produce alloy which are used in making computer chips, prosthesis etc)-beam of ions of carbon, nitrogen etc element is fired/bombarded on selected metal (e.g. titanium) in a vacuum chamber to produce a strong, thin layer of alloy (on a metal surface).

Example of alloy=sterling silver (92.5% Ag + Cu), 14-karat gold, white gold (Au + palladium, nickel & zinc), platinum-iridium, Babbitt metal (i.e. any soft alloy), solder (tin + lead), brass (copper + zinc & other elements), bronze (copper + tin & other elements), German/Nickel silver (copper, zinc & nickel), gunmetal (a dark gray alloy used in making toy etc), pewter (tin, lead, antimony & copper)

In a solution, solvent ion solvates (i.e. pulls solute ions apart & surround them) solute ion & solvent-solute ion complex tends to compete pre-existing solvent-solvent & solute-solute ion complexes. In aqueous solution, solute-solvent ion interaction is called hydration. In saturated solution, maximum possible solute-solvent ion complex are formed at a temperature, while in unsaturated solution, less than maximum possible solute-solvent ion complex are formed at same temperature, and in (unstable) supersaturated solution, more than normally possible solute-solvent ion complex are formed at same temperature.

Solvent & solute having same type of polarity in molecular structure -i.e. having same type of attractive/cohesive force in molecular structure (e.g. ‘H’ bond & London force between water & alcohol-ethanol etc) only form solution and often without any fixed ratio. Usually OH group in a solute molecule (e.g. ethanol, glucose, vit. C etc) form strong attractive/cohesive ‘H’ bond/force with solvent-water. Also highly electronegative elements (like F, O, N group) form this force during solution formation. [Strong attractive/cohesive force ‘H’ bond also hold molecule together in its liquid state]. Usually nonpolar molecules (e.g. nitrogen, methane etc) are gases at room temperature & exhibit transiently intermolecular weak London/Van der Waals bond/force during solution forming with a solvent molecule. However, nonpolar liquid (e.g. gasoline/petrol, CCl4, fat, grease, paraffin/kerosene, benzene etc) only mixes with each other-as non-polar solvent molecule pries apart nonpolar solute molecule. [Polar solvent molecule is too strongly held together to allow entry of nonpolar solute molecule].

Gas solute (& also organic salt of calcium) becomes more soluble in liquid solvent with increasing pressure & mass/weight of gas solute [British chemist William Henry’s law=At a constant temperature, mass /weight of gas solute (& thus its solubility) proportionally rises with pressure (or partial pressure) exerted by this gas solute in liquid solvent molecule; However, this law is not applicable to extremely soluble gas solute into liquid solvent] & with decreasing temperature-as motion of molecule decreases causing formation of ‘H’ bond in molecule’s structure. Otherwise, solid & liquid solutes become more soluble in liquid solvent with increasing temperature-as motion of molecule increases causing partial overcoming of ‘H’ bond in molecule’s structure and Pressure has no effect in solubility of solid & liquid solute in solvent molecule-as pressure does not increase their volume (i.e. mass) in solvent molecule.

In a solution when a solute is being added, solvent’s boiling temperature is raised, freezing temperature & vapor pressure are lowered. E.g. in automobile engine-solvent water’s freezing temperature is lowered when ‘antifreeze’ solute ethylene glycol (HOCH2CH2OH) is added.

Increased temperature causes evaporation of a liquid molecule, thus raising vapor pressure of evaporated gas molecule on a liquid form and boiling of a liquid molecule occurs when local vapor pressure of a gas molecule becomes equal to heat induced total pressure (thus at boiling point-a critical point, vapor remains in equilibrium with liquid, known as saturated vapor, as in case of water vapor at 100° C (212° F) and 1 atmosphere pressure). And vapor at temperature above boiling point is called superheated vapor.

(Strong) attractive/cohesive molecular force (=called cohesion force ‘in traditional physics’; in case of liquid above hydrophobic surface-this same force acting at or near the liquid surface is termed as ‘Surface tension’ that shapes that as droplet & above hydrophilic surface-this same force acting toward the hydrophilic surface is termed as ‘Capillary action’; however, mercury element never shows capillary action-as cohesion force here always being limited as ‘Surface tension’) within solid/liquid ensures their such state at room temperature.

M=molar/molarity, i.e. related to (one) mole of a molecule/mole of solute molecule per liter of solution [molality=mole of solute molecule per kg of solvent] ; mol=mole/gram mol. mass/molecular mass [=A/atomic mass] in gram [& number of atoms/molecules in one mole=Avogadro's number=6.02 × 1023], i.e. comes from French môle (via Greek molos & Latin moles meaning mass/massive form); mol.=molecule/molecular, i.e. comes from German Mol-shortening of Molekul meaning molecule.

Concentration of solute molecule in a solution (unit-count or % or w/v e.g. gm/L or w/w e.g. gm/kg or v/v e.g. ml/L or ppm or ppb)=amount/mass/weight/volume/number of solute molecule in a solution.

Atm./atm.=atmosphere/atmospheric, i.e. unit of pressure (i.e. N/m2 , also called Pascal) by a molecule in its gaseous state on its liquid state/phase (comes from Greek atmos & Latin vapor meaning ‘a molecule in gaseous state’/breath/to blow) & Latin sphaera or Greek sphaira meaning sphere/volume of a solid ball)

[Molar volume/Molecular volume of a molecule=volume (0.02 cubic m) occupied by one mole of a molecule in gaseous state at STP ; Critical volume of a molecule=volume occupied by one mole of a molecule at its critical point; Critical point of a molecule=that temperature or pressure at which physical state/phase of a molecule changes]

A substance/matter/material is a physical/tangible reality/existence which can be felt or touched; its building block is molecule; it may be an element or a compound; it has six states.

An Element is a molecule made through chemical reaction by same constituting atoms in specific proportion all the time; e.g. oxygen, hydrogen, ozone etc.

A Compound is a molecule made through chemical reaction by different constituting elements in specific proportion all the time; e.g. salt, water, sugar etc; its properties remain different from the properties of it’s constituent elements; it can be separated chemically & its physical properties such as boiling point or melting point never change.

Electrolyte=molecule (acid, base, salt) that remains in ions when in solution or in molten state & conducts electric current-after facing to electric potential. Non-electrolyte=molecule that does not remain in ions when in solution or in molten state & does not conduct electric current-after facing to electric potential.

To get closest noble gas configuration (2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86), metal releases its VE (i.e. s & p electrons) & non-metal accepts necessary electrons; thus both become ion-i.e. atom or group of atom that carry electric charge. [This tendency of Elements are called ‘Octet Rule’]

Metallic element is usually solid at room temp., shiny/lustrous, can be drawn into wire/ductile, can be hammered into sheet/malleable, have high melting/boiling point (except=Hg)-that’s why good conductor of heat and electricity & also more dense (except=some family/group 1 metallic elements), react with water & oxygen (a chemical reaction) to result its own corrosion & rust resp., has 1 to 3 electrons in outer orbital & remain connected with non-metal by ionic bond [atoms of a metallic element are surrounded by sea of loosely held outer orbital electrons; Metal loses valence electrons during bond formation & turns into positive ion/cation].

Non-metallic elements are solid (e.g. carbon), liquid (e.g. bromine) or gaseous (e.g. oxygen) at room temp., (solid non-metals are) not lustrous/dull & break easily/brittle (i.e. not ductile/malleable), have low melting/boiling point-that’s why poor conductor of heat and electricity & also less dense, has 4 to 8 electrons in outer orbital & remain connected with other non-metal by covalent bond. [Non-metal gains valence electrons during bond formation & turns into negative ion/anion]

Metalloid/Metal-like element (it is predominantly non-metallic element having also metal like properties) is solid at room temp., may be shiny/lustrous or dull, can be drawn into wire/ductile, can be hammered into sheet/malleable, slight conductor of heat and electricity, remain connected by covalent/ionic bond.

Intermetallic compounds, such as NaAu2, CuSn, and CuAl2, do not follow the ordinary rules of valency.

Gallium, rubidium, cesium & mercury are the only metal elements that melt near room temperature.

Periodic table=atomic number/Z (i.e. proton number) wise tabular arrangement of elements-first provided by D.I.Mendeleev in 1869. Family/Group/18 (or 8 A&B) Column wise elements have same chemical properties, as they have same valence/outer orbital electrons (which get the highest energy of an atom). [Elements in each group/family have similar (but not identical) properties]

8th (or 18 or 8A) Family of Inert/Noble gases are colorless gases found in small amounts in earth’s atmosphere & they have full valence electrons, hence they are not readily chemically reactive.7th (or 17 or 7A) Family of Halogen elements are never found free in nature & they have 7 valence electrons, hence they are chemically very reactive; form salt with alkali metallic elements.6th (or 16 or 6A) Family of Oxygen elements includes oxygen (which is the most abundant element in Earth’s crust) & they have 6 valence electrons, hence they are extremely active and combine with almost all elements by mostly sharing electrons.5th (or 15 or 5A) Family of Nitrogen elements includes nitrogen (which is 78% in Earth’s atmosphere) and covers metal (i.e. Bismuth), non-metal (i.e. N, P) and metalloid (i.e. As, Sb) & they have 5 valence electrons and combine with elements by sharing electrons.4th (or 14 or 4A) Family of Carbon elements includes carbon (which is mankind’s ‘basis of life’ in Earth & carbon compounds give rise to organic chemistry) and covers metal, non-metal and metalloid & they have 4 valence electrons and combine with elements by sharing electrons.3rd (or 13 or 3A) Family of Boron elements includes aluminum (which is the most abundant metallic element in Earth’s crust) & covers metalloid (i.e. Boron) and metal & they have 3 valence electrons.

2nd –B Family of Transition metallic elements covers most familiar names like copper, tin, zinc, iron, nickel, gold, silver & they have 1or 2 valence electrons (some transition elements can lose electrons from own orbital to outermost level=e.g. from ‘d’ to ‘f’ orbital) and form brightly colored compound (e.g. its oxide are often used in colored paint).

2nd (or 2 or 2A)Family of ‘Alkaline Earth’ metallic elements are never found free in nature (like Halogen family) and includes calcium, magnesium & they have 2 valence electrons.

1st (or 1 or 1A) Family of ‘Alkali’ metallic elements are never found free in nature (like Halogen family) & they have 1 valence electrons, chemically extremely/violently reactive (esp. with water) and look shiny-have the consistency of white clay-& are easily cut with knife. [Hydrogen sits atop 1st Family but it is not a member of that family. Hydrogen is in a class of its own. It’s a gas at room temperature. It has one proton and one electron in its only energy level. It needs 1 more electron to fill up its energy level].

Lanthanide and actinide series include 30 ‘Rare earth’ elements. 1 element of lanthanide series and most of actinide series are called trans-uranium (which means synthetic).

[Rule of octet=All atoms, except=hydrogen, want to have 8 electrons in their outermost energy level, Atomic mass/A=Weight of an atom=Addition of proton no./Z & neutron no.; An element may show variable neutron no. rather than its fixed proton no.=these varieties are called isotopes of that element; 1 amu=mass of 1 proton; electron is 1836 or 2000 times smaller than 1 amu]

Types of orbital/energy level/Quantum number in an atom with electron capacity:Main/Principal (n) [2n2]=e.g. 2, 8, 18, 32 etc electrons per main energy level.Angular momentum/Sub-energy level (l) {per main energy level} [2(2l+1)]=s2, p6, d10, f14 etc irrespective of main energy level.Magnetic/Spatial orientation (of each Sub-energy level) (ml) [2l+1]=s1, p3, d5, f7 etc irrespective of main energy level. Spin (of each electron-which making it a magnet) (ms) [+1/2 or -1/2 spin]=[Pauli Exclusion Principle: In an atom, no two electrons having the same four quantum numbers will occupy an orbital; *Aufbau(German word for ‘construction’)Building Up Principle: electrons fill low energy level first before they fill higher energy level in an atom; Hund’s multiplicity Principle: In an atom, each of same energy level will be filled up singly first before their subsequent filling by another set of electrons]

Relationship between main & sub energy level of electrons (in periodic table; taking main & sub energy level-wise max. electron capacity into account)=1s2 ; 2s2 2p6 ; 3s2 3p6 ; 4s2 3d10 4p6 ; 5s2 4d10 5p6 ; 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 ; 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6 .

Ionization Energy=energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of isolated gaseous atoms or ions; e.g. more energy is needed to remove VE from a non-metal.Electronegativity=electron attracting power of an atom or a functional group toward itself in a covalent bond; e.g. non-metal has more electron attracting power.

Allotrope=Different physical shape/form/property (e.g. color, luster, density/hardness, odor, electrical and thermal conductivity & number of same atom in each different physical shape may vary) of an element (& their chemical property may vary or remain same)-provided remaining in the same physical state. E.g. arsenic, antimony, iron, oxygen, carbon, phosphorus, selenium, sulfur, tin etc show allotropy.

Example of Carbon allotropy-diamond, buckminsterfullerene, graphite, amorphous forms (i.e. soot-black powder/dust form, charcoal-heated organic matter in air-free space, coal-black rock form (a fully decomposed organic matter, peat-a partially decomposed organic matter-i.e. pre-form of coal), bituminous coal-soft coal giving smoky flame, coke-solid residue after removing volatile matter from bituminous coal or petroleum-i.e. gasoline & kerosene)

Cause of allotropy in an element=exposure of it in various temperature & pressure; Types of allotropy in an element=enantiotropic variety-at a definite transition temperature, one solid form of an element turns into another solid form, e.g. below 13°C (55°F), white tin turns into brittle gray tin; monotropic variety-multiple simultaneous forms (may be stable & metastable and they are temperature-independent) of an element, e.g. Carbon [graphite is stable form & diamond and buckminsterfullerene (structures reminiscent of the geodesic dome designed by US architect Richard Buckminster Fuller in 1940) are metastable form-i.e. change, extremely slowly into graphite], Phosphorus [Red P is stable & White/Yellow P is metastable].

Tar-black liquid getting from bituminous coal (tobacco smoke residue is often termed as tar) [Tar camphor/Naphthalene,C10H8=processed from tar], Asphalt-black solid/semisolid getting from bituminous coal [Bitumen-black sticky mixture of tar & asphalt]; {Camphor,C10H16=processed from bark & stem of camphor tree- Latin name: Cinnamomum camphora}

Isomer=Different physical, chemical & biological property of a molecule showing same chemical formula (i.e. number of constituting elements/atoms in that molecule is constant, Unlike Allotropy).

Causes of isomerism in a molecule=either change in complete order/arrangement (hence molecular structure/structural geometry/physical form or structure or shape becomes different=structural variety) or only in position (=called stereoisomer, it may be two atoms’ position change around a double bond or appear as mirror-image molecules) of constituting atoms/groups within a same molecular structure;

Types of isomerism in a molecule=structural variety-e.g. pentane, isopentane & neopentane-all found in gasoline, having chemical formula C5H12 ; stereoisomeric variety-geometric subtype: two atoms’ position change around a double bond, e.g. cis-means staying at same side of a double bond & trans-means staying across a double bond, enantiomorphic/optical (indicating rotating polarized light clockwise=D or counterclockwise=L) subtype: appear as mirror-image molecules, e.g. L- & D- forms of AA, glucose, aspartame, lactic acid, ibuprofen etc.

Nuclear (or Isotope’s) isomer=nuclear energy level-based forms of a same isotope. E.g. higher energy level form (i.e. excited state) & lower energy level form (i.e. meta-stable state) of protactinium-234 etc.

Protein [Gk. Proteios=“primary”; using 22 different AA-cell make different, specialized protein-including enzyme; actually protein ensure ‘fluid (e.g. plasma/lymph/endolymph/synovial fluid etc) balance’ in body]:

its chemical breakdown/oxidation releases 4.1 kilocalorie energy per gram as do carbohydrate, may be water insoluble fiber [making connective tissue, hair] or water soluble-e.g. globular protein, always large molecule having few thousand to million gram MW/mole)=meat, egg & milk contain all 9 essential acids in perfect proportion that is needed for human body-hence ‘protein’ in these 3 food are termed ‘high nutritional quality’ (plant seed protein are often weak in 2 essential acids=lysine & tryptophan, plant-including fungi[ but excluding bacteria & other animal] produce its own AAs from CO2, nitrogen & other chemical via ‘photosynthesis’). Kwashiorkor=a wasting disease among children in tropical Africa, is due to an amino acid deficiency. For adult, RDA for protein is about .79 to 1 g per kg of body weight each day. For children and infant, this RDA is doubled & tripled respectively=because of their rapid growth. Linear/chained/primary (e.g. linear sequence of amino acids, e.g. polypeptide chain-‘PPC’), twisted/helical/coiled/folded/pleated/corrugated/secondary (occurred due to polypeptide chain with developed forces namely hydrogen bond, disulfide bridge, attraction between positive and negative charge, attraction between hydrophobic/water-fearing & hydrophilic/water-loving linkages; e.g. alpha helix, beta pleated sheet), tertiary (these forces induced even more compaction/suprafolding, e.g. globular protein), quaternary (has >1=with 2 PPC bonded together-e.g. antibody protein; often 4 PPC bonded together-e.g. hemoglobin, some enzyme). Hydrophobic AAs usually face inward-giving the protein molecule stability & hydrophilic AAs face outward-making the protein molecule free to interact with other molecules=e.g. globular protein joins with vitamin derivative (to form coenzyme) or with other protein (needed for cell chemistry or structure).

Class of Protein-On chemical property, Holo-/simple protein (has only AAs, e.g. fibrous, globular, cereal, DNA related=histone & protamine [comes from AA=arginine]-make DNA molecule coiled) Hetero-protein (has AAs + non-protein part, e.g. hemo-, flavo-, metallo- =Cu, Fe, Zn, Mo, Ca etc, glyco-, lipo, nucleo-, phospho-),

On function, Fibrous protein (liable for structure of cell/tissue)Globular protein (e.g. enzyme-liable for metabolism etc),

On solubility, Insoluble-in any aqueous medium (e.g. fibrous protein)Soluble (-in water=e.g. albumin & -in salt mixture having neutral/acidic/mildly alkaline medium=e.g. globulin).Peptide=Peptide bond (CO-NH)=a covalent bond; In a PPC, between terminal primary amine=called N-terminal & terminal carboxyl=called C-terminal, Peptide (oligopeptide=<10, polypeptide=>10)=<50 AAs; Protein=>50 AAs, [Peptide & Protein differ due to no., nature & sequence of AAs]AA=In adult human, EAAs=9; In child, EAAs=+1 (i.e. histidine); In raised metabolic demand, conditionally EAA=+2 (i.e. arginine & glutamine)

(Water insoluble) fibrous/fibrilar-helical/secondary ‘polypeptide chain’ (PPC) =*CT=made by cell & fiber/intercellular matrix/stroma, remains in solid/liquid/gel (i.e. semisolid) phase.Collagen (most abundant protein found in vertebrate, has triple helix/secondary with very long-about 1000 PPC-giving tensile strength, secreted from fibroblast-besides elastin & chondrion protein)=make Connective tissue* (i.e. skin/hide, bone, fat/adipose, tendon, ligament, cartilage, blood & lymph) [their ‘water/dilute acid boiling’ makes collagen chains shortened-forming water soluble ‘gelatin’-highly nutritious, easily digested & absorbed-however, lacks some essential amino acids; used in making jam/jelly-including aspic=fish/meat stock originated meat jelly, ice cream, marshmallow, film/plate/paper making in photography; as culture medium in bacteriology, making coating for capsule/pill/some surgical dressing, in dyeing & photomechanical printing process; glue-comes from Latin word ‘gluten’ (2 protein mixture in cereal grain)-is impure form of ‘gelatin’].

(alpha) Keratin (rich in AA-proline & cysteine, protects body against external environment, has triple helix/secondary-called alpha helix with disulfide bond-making it robust to proteolytic/protein-hydrolyzing enzyme but reducing agent-thioglycol reduces number of disulfide bond & makes hair straight; However, oxygen again raises disulfide bond)=make Connective cell tissue’s ‘Intercellular matrix/stroma’ component (i.e. outermost layer of skin/hide, hair, scale, hoof, nail, feather, beak, horn).

Fibrin (link together to form clot, with thrombin-plasma protein ‘fibrinogen’ converted into it).

Myosin & Actin (a protein that make filament>fibril inside muscle cell/fiber; together form ‘actomyosin’-that causes muscle to contract, has triple helix/secondary-called alpha helix).

(Water soluble) globular/spherical ‘polypeptide chain’ (PPC) =

Enzyme (molecule that control speed of biochemical reaction),

Protein Hormone (molecule that carry message regarding carrying out a specific task in cell/tissue/organ=e.g.-Thyroglobulin from thyroid-for triggering and controlling overall metabolism, Insulin-for triggering and controlling carbohydrate metabolism, Calcitonin from thyroid-for lowering blood calcium level, Angiogenin- for inducing growth of blood vessels in tissue; Other protein hormones-e.g. for producing digestive enzyme, milk etc),

Antibody/Immunoglobulin (many types may be produced in blood serum in reaction to single antigen-i.e. body-invading molecule, They bind to many sites on antigen molecule-neutralize it & cause antigen to precipitate from blood),

Tubulin (a protein that make hollow microstructure inside cell=that carry molecule, bring cell’s shape & movement; alpha & beta pair-form tubule as ‘9 pairs around central 10th pair’-e.g. short cilia & long flagellum-acts as propeller, conducts substance inside cell),

Albumin* & Globulin (abundant in animal cell, blood serum, milk & egg), Casein (80% of milk protein-present as micelle of ‘calcium phosphocaseinate’), Hemoglobin (respiratory protein & has 100 types in human)[*Present in legume as legumeline, Cereal protein/Gluten=85% is made by prolamin & glutenin=make baked food-moist & elastic;Reserve protein=egg white in egg, glycinin in soybean]

About 100,000 different kinds of protein present in human body.Cytochrome c and other oxidation-reduction enzymes catalyze oxidation of foodstuff within cellMyosin converts chemical energy-ATP into mechanical work.Protein is broken into AA by boiling in water for a long time or with acid/alkali.1958, German chemist Emil Fischer discovered that protein consists of PPC.Hydrogen atom does not scatter X-ray very strongly-so, its position is usually not well indicated by X-ray method. X-ray pattern of hair/other human fibrous protein, silk [+spider’s web are made by ‘fibroin’ protein] & tendon are quite different. Simple peptide (=short chain of amino-acid residues).Amide group (CO-NH or CO-NH2) is coplanar (i.e. trans=more stable & cis=rare in PPC) & rigid part of polypeptide chain. Trans configuration has carbon atoms at opposite corner of the group. Cis configuration has carbon atoms at adjacent corner.Glycine is asymmetric, left-handed molecule. Helical molecule (e.g. Hair, bacterial flagellum=alpha keratin type helix, 180 Angstrom=1.8 pm in diameter) has no mirror image. In electron microscope, flagellum consists of 3 strands-each 90 Angstrom=.9 pm in diameter.Through electron microscopy & X-ray diffraction, it is possible to track from cell to atom.

In CM of most cell, lipid molecule is 40% & protein molecule is 60% (however, later one’s range is 20% to 75%-depending on type of cell) [e.g. 100,000 receptor is seen on CM of small/resting lymphocyte-so that a molecule bind on it & either stimulate/paralyze this lymphocyte]

In CM, PL molecule resist change in CM’s configuration (otherwise PL’s hydrophobic tail would be exposed to watery fluid-that both fill & surround 100 trillion living cell).

As cell grow & move, dynamic, flexible & fluid structure-CM’s Lipid & Protein molecule are constantly added & removed from inside of cell.

CM’s shape change (e.g. ameba, RBC etc) underlie sideways movement of PL (which is major lipid molecule in CM) & protein molecule through CM (however, protein molecule drift more slowly than PL molecule through CM).

Water-hating tail block large water-soluble molecule (e.g. sugar, certain AA etc) from passing through CM while permitting fat-soluble molecule-e.g. tranquilizer/sleeping pill to cross CM.

In animal/plant/fungi CM, small lipid molecule-cholesterol positioned among hydrophobic tail of phospholipid/PL molecule=to prevent PL’s freezing into jellylike form at low temperature (anti-freeze action of cholesterol) & also stabilize/limit movement of slippery PL molecule bi-layer (stabilizer action of cholesterol).

In plant/fungi/bacteria/most algae, CM is surrounded by rigid structure-cell wall (e.g. in diatom-a single-celled floating algae=CW is made by silica/glass & that form base of aquatic food chain). [CW support cell & prevent it from drying out]

Plasma membrane protein’s function=hold neighboring cell; (in bacteria) participate in photosynthesis & other energy producing chemical reaction; (In multicellular organism) ensure communication between cell [via acting as receptor for binding hormone & other signal molecule-that come from other cell]; (in animal cell) act as marker [which is GP that help immune system to distinguish them from foreign cell, thus immune system trigger action freely against ‘plasma membrane protein/antigen/GP’ of bacteria/virus/fungi/non-matched transplanted tissue].

Transport/Traffic mechanism for molecule across CM-Direct transport (by diffusion) via tiny gap between PL molecules=oxygen, carbon dioxide & other small molecule (thus aerobic respiration is continued easily inside 100 trillion cell).Endocytosis=inward folding of CM around a large molecule [until it form a closed sac around that molecule].Exocytosis/reversal of Endocytosis=sac containing hormone/antibody/other large molecule inside animal cell are released by this way.Passive transport-i.e. by ‘facilitated diffusion’ (involving ‘plasma membrane protein as hollow channel’)=water.Active transport (involving ‘plasma membrane protein as pump’)=drive molecule against their conc. gradient-with using ATP.

Food chain among single-celled organism (from large sized to small sized)=ameba>protozoa>bacteria

Lipid [fatty or oily molecule; 2 type=unsaponofiable ‘polyisoprene’ & saponifiable (i.e. ability of soap-making) ‘FA’ based subtype; ‘isoprene’=liquid flammable HC that come from flammable natural gas HC ‘propylene’]

A class of (amphiphilic=having hydrophilic head & hydrophobic tail & greasy) biomolecules-not dissolving in water but soluble in organic solvent like alcohol, ether etc. Oxidation of typical fat (mainly TG) releases 9 kilocalorie energy/gram of fat.

Function: [play many role inside cell-e.g. help blood to clot, stored as high-energy fuel inside cell, basic component of CM] immediate (for muscle & nervous tissue) & reserve energy, structure-including as cushion for vital organ, hormone-like role, source of vit. ADEK, reserve water (seen in dromedary), protect from extreme cold & heat.

[(Free) Radical (transient but very reactive/unstable intermediary molecule having 1/2/more unpaired/missed electron seen in chemical reaction; to be neutral-take electron from base molecule-setting off chain reaction/domino effect that damage hundreds of molecule)=oxidize base molecule like-lipid, protein & NA-when enzyme/anti-oxidant system (e.g. SOD) is disrupted; Via it, arthritis, heart disease, stroke, Alzheimer's disease, cancer, cataract etc occur; also used in WBC induced destruction of invading organism; cause chain reaction-e.g. seen during fire/plastic/rubber production; Anti-oxidant/Anti-acid/anti-nonmetal (e.g. vit. C, butylated hydroxytoluene-BHT, butylated hydroxyanisole-BHA)=prevent base molecule releasing electron-i.e. prevent polymer decomposition into monomer].(Free) (P)UFA is easily oxidized (i.e. volatile odor/rancidity & FR formation) in frozen state while (Free) SFA is oxidized at >600C.Interesterification (not hydrogenation-that form less digestible ‘trans’ UFA-a geometric stereoisomer) of various UFA containing TG form ‘shortening’ (which is not oxidized)= SFA containing TG (i.e. structural isomeric transition).Alkali/base is mixed with ester (i.e. acid-alcohol conjugate; e.g. TG, wax, essential oil) producing alcohol & soap (i.e. Alkali/base metal-FA conjugate) followed by reaction with acid/air exposure-thus reducing/separating FA from parent ‘ester’.

5 worst food for arthritis (as they contain inflammation-provoking molecule):1.2. potato/tomato/eggplant etc ‘nightshade vegetable (Solanaceae family)’=cause calcium deposition-as they contain active form of vit. D-i.e. calcitriol.3. blackened/barbeque food=as they contain ‘advanced glycation end-product (AGE)’-which is highly inflammatory.4. french fry/burger/other processed fast food=as they are made using too much ‘omega-6’ FA containing oil-namely soy bean/sunflower/peanut/corn.5. gluten (mixture of 2 proteins in cereal-esp. wheat)=as body process them into sugar.

Weakly amphiphilic lipid molecule (e.g. soap, detergent, steride, glyceride etc) form mono-layered ‘micelle’ in water, while Strongly amphiphilic lipid molecule (e.g. phospholipid, sphingolipid etc) form bi-layered ‘liposome’ in water.

4 Subtype of ‘polyisoprene’ (come from ‘propylene’=flammable gaseous HC)-carotenoid (e.g. vit. A etc), terpenoid (e.g. essential oil-camphor oil etc), quinone (e.g. ubiquinone, vit. E & K), steroid (e.g. sterol/cholesterol & its derivative=bile acid, steroid hormone & vit. D).Saponifiable ‘FA’ based lipid: (2 types=‘simple’ & ‘complex’ lipid)‘simple’ lipid (they all are ester)-Steride=FA-sterol (a tetra-cyclic enol) conjugate (found in fungi, plant & animal)Glyceride=FA-glycerol conjugate (found in plant & animal)Wax=(LC)FA-(aliphatic primary monohydric) alcohol conjugate (found in plant & animal)‘complex’ lipid (they are ester & all make biological membrane)-Phosphorus tagged lipid/phospho-lipid/phosphatide=e.g. glycero (i.e. glyceryl group)-phospho-lipid [i.e. ester made by ‘glyceryl’ group + 2 FA + 1 phosphate group + 1 alcohol molecule-e.g. serine/choline/ethanolamine/inositol]; sphingo (i.e. sphingosine enol)-phospho-lipid [i.e. ester made by ‘sphingosyl’ group + 1 FA + 1 phosphate group + 1 alcohol molecule-e.g. serine/choline/ethanolamine/inositol].Sugar (i.e. glucose/galactose) tagged lipid/glyco-lipid=e.g. sphingo (i.e. sphingosine enol)-glyco-lipid [i.e. ester made by ‘sphingosyl’ group + 1 FA + 1 sugar molecule].Sulfur tagged lipid/sulfo-lipid/sulfatide.

E/PU-FA (also called vit. F; like saturated FA, they remain mostly as ester=i.e. FA-alcohol conjugate in diet forming ‘saponifiable lipid’) family=As energy, muscle tissue use ‘omega 3’(=i.e. Linolenic acid, c18:3 & its derivative=EPA, c20:5 & DHA, c20:6) & ‘omega 6’ (=i.e. Linoleic acid, c18:2 & its derivative=Arachidonic acid, c20:4; source=mainly seed/grain/vegetable oil & also dairy/poultry/liver) family while nerve tissue only use ‘omega 3’ (source=seafood & green vegetable with its oil; its deficiency cause major organ/system disease like heart/kidney/reproductive/skin/brain-like stunting) family .

[omega indicate position of 1st double bond from opposite of acid group; cis (same side, most common in nature) & trans (opposite side, rare in nature=source: dairy/meat & fat of Ruminant)-stereoisomeric/positional variety-geometric subtype present in (M/P)UFA; FA is non-cyclic HC (range=4 to 18 or 22 carbon atom) with acid group having strong odor & sour taste & insoluble in water but soluble in any organic solvent and in organism, FA remain as ester=i.e. FA-alcohol conjugate forming ‘saponifiable lipid’-that provide FFA (+ alcohol) again after hydrolysis & provide soap/detergent-i.e. Metal-FA conjugate (+ alcohol) after ‘alkali treatment’]

gamma linolenic acid=an essential fatty acid required to form prostaglandin; found in high concentration in evening primrose oil & borage oil; taken as dietary supplement for menstrual disorder & for pain of arthritis.

phospholipid- (simple) fat/oil-i.e. TG-temporarily stored in plant/animal cell when excess energy is available from food or from photosynthesis & chemically a ester formed by 1 trihydric alcohol=glycerol/glycerin molecule with 3 fatty acid molecule, Wax-protective coating over animal skin/hide & plant leaf/flower/fruit. Steroid-e.g. certain steroid alcohol/sterol in animal-i.e. cholesterol (also found in Plant) & vitamin D=a ‘UV exposed’ sterol at animal skin/hide, bile acid/salt, certain hormone=hydrocortisone/cortisol (affect all body process, related molecule=corticosteroid/corticoid=e.g. cortisone which is prodrug for cortisol & most widely used steroid in medicine)-affect metabolism of carbohydrate, protein & fat, maturation of WBC, retention of salt & water in body, activity of nervous system, regulation of blood pressure, suppress immune response and used to treat deficiency of adrenal cortical hormone, severe non-infectious inflammation, increase acceptance of medical transplant, collagen disease, skin ailment, rheumatoid arthritis-not helped by milder NSAID, asthma, allergy, various eye inflammation; S/E=dispose a person to infection, swelling of face & limb, muscle weakness, weight gain, high blood pressure, diabetes, aldosterone, progesterone (other molecules=progestin, progestogen; also released from ovarian ‘corpus luteum’ to prepare uterus for fertilized ovum & later from placenta to maintain gestation/pregnancy) from adrenal cortex, Estrogen & Testosterone/Androsterone (two of 3 androgen), certain plant molecule, poison in certain toad skin.

Progestational phase=part of cycle after ovulation when progesterone is produced..

Phospholipid (derivative of fatty acids, glycerol, phosphoric acid & nitrogen-containing bases)[glycolipid does not contain phosphorus but has carbohydrate, fatty acids & nitrogen compounds](simple/fixed/nonvolatile/FA containing) Fat/oil (i.e. TG)=remain in liquid or semisolid phase & greasy/waxy/tallow in nature=like Sterol/Cholesterol; vegetable/plant fat is gained by ‘pressure extraction’ of its parts like seed, fruit etc while animal fat is gained by ‘water boiling followed by cooling’ of its parts (as heat melts fat out from tissue that float in water surface due to low ‘relative density’ so that it can be skimmed off); stiffen cell by making semisolid colloid ‘sol’ in water; used as cooking fat/oil, candle, soap & paint (where volatile plant unsaturated fat/oil act as dispersion medium for solid dye molecule to make semisolid colloid ‘sol’) making,[essential oil, petroleum =volatile & non-oily; animal fat/oil is also called ‘Grease’].

Wax (has wide range of melting point, gloss/shininess, hardness, tensile strength, water resistance, ductility/malleability/elasticity/plasticity; Origin-animal (e.g. bee wax, other insect’s secretion-Chinese wax, from intestine/head of whale/dolphin), plant (e.g. coating in stem, leaves etc. of most evergreen shrub/bush-like myrtle wax, carnauba wax), mineral/inorganic from decomposed matter (most popular)-e.g. kerosene/paraffin wax gained from refined petroleum which is saturated HC)=remain in liquid, semisolid or solid phase & slight greasy/waxy/tallow in nature=like Fat & Sterol/Cholesterol; chemically a ester formed by 1 monohydric alcohol=methanol or ethanol molecule with fatty acid molecule; used in making candle (fat/oil is also used), polish, match, waxed paper, cosmetics (mainly cholesterol is used), rust preventive, rubber antioxidant, electrical insulator, paper coating, printing ink, textile finish, leather dressing, waxed container for food, as fixative (i.e. prevent evaporation of volatile oil) in perfume;

Essential oil (non-oily/waxy/greasy, volatile liquid oil remain as ester & has characteristic strong odor-to either attract or repel insect; also used as antiseptic/preservative/analgesic, aroma/flavor imparting in other molecule like toiletry, cosmetic or consumer product)=comes from (organic) plant parts & (inorganic/decomposed matter) mineral (like coal, petroleum) in rock/ground-e.g. creosote oil from wood/coal tar; chemically are 5 classes= alcohol, ester, lactone, aldehyde, ketone, oxide; obtained by steam/destructive distillation, volatile solvent mediated extraction, hand/machine based expression, enfleurage-where fat/oil is used as solvent; finally purified by vacuum distillation.

Glycerol [a non-poisonous, sweet-tasting liquid alcohol, highly viscous & show water affinity; glycerol compound in solution is called glycerin/glycerite]=readily make solution in water & other alcohol (but not dissolve in petroleum liquid); during soap [TG + metallic base] making, glycerol is by-product-purified by distillation; used in making resin, toothpaste, drug, cellophane (as plasticizer), tobacco product (as moistening agent), nitroglycerol explosive, ink, as lubricant in petroleum-pumping & food-processing machinery; as it boils at 290° C, liquid glycerol resist freezing (within wide-ranged temp.).

FA=organic acid-produced by hydrolysis of TG; greasy in texture; may have little or sharp/unpleasant odor; used as lubricant, thickener for paint, for making detergent molecule biodegradable, polymerization of HC (e.g. plastic etc), flotation of ore (mineral from which metal is extracted), coating over wood/metal/plastic product, manufacture of disinfectant (molecule that destroy/inhibit growth of microbe), drier of resin (a semisolid HC)-TG (oil)/alcohol soln. (i.e. varnish soln.)

Detergent (including soap)=an amphiphilic, surface-active/surfactant biodegradable (HC based) ester molecule (also termed as ‘water softener’)-whose solution remove organic molecule from a surface; HC (both open & closed type) + sulfuric acid-followed by neutralization with alkali to convert it to its sodium salt; E.g. alkylate sulfonate; effective in hard & cold/cool water, unlike soap; it has large molecular weight (>200); saponin molecule (extracted from root of soap plant) is used in making detergent & also ‘foaming liquid’ (i.e. show quick-lathering property-used as fire extinguisher).

Soap (including shampoo & shaving cream/paste/gel)=Alkali metal based FA’s salt (i.e. ester’s glycerol part comes out & ash’s Na/K get inside FA); hard/solid soap (Alkali NaOH + sat. FA; lathers only in salt-water=i.e. marine soap) & soft/semisolid soap (Alkali KOH + unsat. FA).

Soda=washing soda/Na2CO3 comes from brine/sea water/NaCl (via heating of produced intermediary NaHCO3, natural source=soda lake, ash of saltwort & seaweed-which is also a source of potash & iodine), used in making of glass, ceramic, paper (mixed with pulped wood), soap, petroleum refining, sodium-containing molecule (e.g. NaOH etc) & as detergent/water softener; baking soda/NaHCO3 (remain as powder & produced by treating sodium carbonate with water and carbon dioxide, natural source=spring water) release CO2 & water-when heated in air at 550C=hence used as ‘CO2’ source in fire extinguishing, food baking, neutralizing excessive acid in human body, reduce alkalinity of sodium carbonate in industry.

Plastic [organic-i.e. hydrocarbon-based but engineered very long molecule forming semisolid/sticky/viscous ‘resin’ (i.e. precursor of plastic) & having >50 family; natural source=plant oil & petrochemical-i.e. coal, petroleum & natural gas; often has side chain of chlorine, fluorine, nitrogen, silicon etc] =made hard as stone, strong as steel, transparent as glass, light as wood, elastic as rubber, translucent-i.e. transmit light or opaque-impenetrable to light; it is also lightweight, waterproof, chemical resistant & produced in almost any color; like metal, it is alloyed/blended & like glass, clay & metal, it is moldable; used in pillow, mattress, blanket, bedspread, carpet, car, computer, utensil, telephone, textile, compact disc, paint, plumbing fixture, boat, furniture, recreational equipment, house, building, in industry (like automobile, aerospace-missile/rocket/aircraft/space suit, construction, packaging, electrical, health-medical instrument/dental filling/optical lens/biocompatible joint/contact lens etc); natural resin/plastic=latex (white liquid from plant & used to make rubber, gutta-percha etc), shellac (yellowish orange flake from lac insect & used to make plastic); Pyrolysis converts both ‘thermoplastic’ & ‘thermosetting’ plastic into liquid HC; Recyclable matter is plastic, glass, paper & metal.

Glass=non-solid & non-liquid-i.e. vitreous/glassy, amorphous silicon dioxide-based matter; Raw matter-sand, flint & quartz; molten glass is liquid or moldable/semisolid; it is transparent/crystal-clear, translucent/glowing or opaque; poor conductor of both heat & electricity; natural glass-obsidian (lava/molten rock), tektite (meteor-based); different molecule (e.g. metal, plastic etc) is added to get specific property.

Sterol/Cholesterol (greasy/waxy/tallow in nature having >20 carbon atom in ring structure & in ECF, mostly transported/stored as cholesteryl ester-i.e. remain attached with LCFA with elimination of water molecule in micelle of LDL, HDL etc protein)=a steroid alcohol molecule produced (from cholesterol-free molecule by intracellular enzyme HMG CoA reductase) in all animal/plant cell-including oil gland of skin & form CM, bile salt/acid, vit. D, steroid hormones [sex hormones=estradiol etc & adrenal hormones=cortisol etc], lubricate & protect (from bacteria) hair & skin, protect nerve fiber; used commercially in lubricant, leather preservative, ointment, cosmetic etc. [6 types of protein carry cholesterol in blood=VLDL, IDL, LDL, HDL, Chylomicron & Chylomicron remnant; Diet source= Among dairy product-cream, butter, cheese; meat (i.e. saturated) fat, egg yolk; vit. niacin & exercise raise HDL protein; All cell has LDL receptor (a Glyco-Protein) for VLDL, IDL & LDL molecule and chylomicron remnant receptor (another Glyco-Protein) for chylomicron remnant molecule]

Atheroma/Atherosclerosis (formed in people with high level of (FR mediated oxidized LDL) cholesterol (+ sat. fat & trans fat) in their diet and bloodstream)=along inner lining of any artery, plaque/deposit of fat, cholesterol, platelet, decomposing muscle cell & other tissue-causing infarction of any (e.g. heart, brain, kidney, intestine etc) tissue. [cholesterol-rich diet intake raise blood level of cholesterol-carrying protein that cause ‘Atheroma’-hence MU fat-rich diet must be taken-e.g. olive, canola, peanut etc-that increase HDL & decrease LDL & VLDL protein ]Bile (formed in most vertebrate)=contains bile salt/acid, bilirubin (spleen cell extract iron & biliverdin from Heme and liver cell converts biliverdin into bilirubin in carnivore/omnivore but not in herbivore-where biliverdin is excreted directly) & toxic chemical (e.g. drug, alcohol etc-after chemical alteration by liver cell). Stasis of bile (inflammation/infection often coexist that alter conc. of bile component) or excess Ca & Cholesterol in bile causes bilirubin & bile salt to precipitate and form stone.

bile acid/salt (chenodeoxycholic acid, ursodeoxycholic acid-made by liver cell from cholesterol)=remove excess cholesterol from liver (via bile) or from intestine (to outside as stool).

Testosterone (one of 3 androgen & released from Leydig cell of male testis and adrenal gland of both sex)-used to treat certain breast cancer, osteoporosis, body-wasting disease=as testosterone based synthetic ‘anabolic’ steroid induce & maintain secondary male sex features at puberty, weight gain & muscle mass by stimulating protein synthesis & inhibiting protein breakdown; S/E=aggressive behavior, higher cholesterol, more risk of heart attack, stroke & liver problem, testicular/ovarian tumor (by excess of androgen),

Estrogen (molecules=estrone, estriol, stilbestrol, ethinyl estradiol & released mainly from ovary; control growth of uterine lining in 1st part of cycle, affect metabolism, cause breast change at gestation/pregnancy, induce & maintain secondary female sex features at puberty, inhibit ovulation)-used to treat estrogen deficiency seen in menopause, inflammation of vagina, stimulate lactation after childbirth, to treat disseminated/advanced Ca-prostate, to treat/prevent breast cancer (by tamoxifen=an anti-estrogen), to treat osteoporosis (by raloxifene =a designer estrogen), to slow brain deterioration (seen in Alzheimer); combination with progestin=risk of uterine cancer reduces.

Photosynthesis (meaning ‘to build with light’)/Calvin cycle [implemented via chromoplast’s/plastid’s ‘energy-trapping’ molecule=like chlorophyll, carotene/carotenoid molecule or ‘bacteriorhodopsin’ of archaebacteria-e.g. halobacteria]=H2O or H2S (seen in mud-dwelling archaebacteria, halobacteria of salty environment) is used & O2 or sulfur (seen in mud-dwelling archaebacteria=that also produce ATP instead of glucose); on hot days, plant cell close pore of leaves and store water & carbon dioxide-to continue ‘Calvin cycle’=instead of capturing them from air; In chloroplast-with help of enzyme, (‘Augur’ electron accepting co-enzyme) NADPH (that also provide hydrogen atom to electron during making glucose) & (phosphorus carrying coenzyme and chemical energy supplier for reaction toward making glucose) ATP (chlorophyll molecule form it from ADP using ‘light’ energy) =air’s/stored ‘carbon dioxide’ is attached with 5-carbon based sugar ‘ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)’ to form glucose=that may be stored/used as other structural molecule/catabolized to generate ATP during aerobic cell respiration; energy & enzyme decompose water into oxygen (that release in air), hydrogen ion (that, with 2 electron, reduce NADP+ into NADPH) & electron (that replenish ‘Augur’ electron-deficient ‘Photosystem II chlorophyll’ molecule=P680); in Photosystem II=‘Augur’ electron-mediated energy provoke 1 phosphorus atom to react with ADP to form ATP

Animal (e.g. octopus, squid, some frog, lizard) has ‘pigment molecule-carrying cell’-called chromatophore while plant /alga/cyanobacteria has organelle called ‘chromoplast/plastid’ [that contain chlorophyll, DNA, ribosome, sugar molecule]. Colored molecule may be green [i.e. chlorophyll] or yellow/orange/red [i.e. carotene/carotenoid]; energy’s wavelength-absorbed into these molecule are yellow/orange/red/blue.

Pigment [a molecule that absorb/reflect visible light; protect organism from being focused by allowing to adopt mimicry]Nitrogen-free molecule:flavonoid [phenol based ‘yellow’ molecule-block out UV energy; convert into anthocyanin-a ‘blue’ molecule], Quinone [another ‘red/yellow/orange’ molecule found in fat cell of ‘cochineal scale insect’(-where it act as coenzyme Q/ubiquinone/an electron transporter during anabolism & it act as ‘anti-oxidant’), plant/fungi/bacteria]Nitrogen-containing molecule:Hemoglobin [carry gas, make blood red & make some body part red-e.g. in baboon], chlorophyll [absorb ‘violet-blue’ & ‘orange-red’ energy; structure: central magnesium=surrounded by nitrogen-based ‘porphyrin’ pigment molecule], carotenoid [e.g. carotene=act as catalyst in metabolism in plant/fungi/bacteria & animal, form vit A-that ensure vision & growth], bile pigment, melanin [‘dark brown/black’ molecule-found in animal & human], indigoid/indigo [analog of melanin & found in plant], riboflavin/B2 [ribose sugar-based ‘yellow’ molecule-produced by plant & acting as coenzyme in metabolism]

Porphyrin=pigment molecule found in plant & animal-that has 4 pyrrole ring linked by methylene (i.e. methane derivative:CH2=) group; seen in chlorophyll, hemoglobin, bile pigment; Pyrrole=colorless toxic liquid molecule having carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen [Greek purros "fiery red" < pur "fire]

Mitochondrion [seen in eukaryote-i.e. cell with nucleus-hence not seen in bacteria & cyanobacteria] contain protein producer ‘ribosome’, protein ‘enzyme’, circular DNA (that come from mother side and code for enzyme used in ATP production and protein used in nervous, endocrine & circulatory system); during cell replication-mitochondria also replicate independently of nucleus [however during fertilization=sperm's mitochondria are left outside ovum-i.e. inserting father’s DNA only]; seen in high number in high energy using cell-e.g. flagellum of sperm cell, muscle cell & plant cell; thousand ATP/minute goes to cytoplasm to convert ADP (that return to mitochondria to form ATP again); from cytoplasm-glucose break down product=pyruvic acid enter mitochondria to be hydrolyzed to CO2 & H2 [that, by coenzyme NADP, break to electron & proton]; electron is used in ‘electron transport chain’ to form ATP & finally bond with oxygen and proton to form water; in mitochondrion-proton is also used to reconvert ADP into ATP; in Krebs cycle [that occur inside mitochondrion & also in bacteria]=food [as acetyl group=acetic acid derivative, CH3CO-] is destroyed to form electron [that go to ‘electron transport chain’], CO2, intermediate molecules [that are used to make AA, carbohydrate & other cellular molecule] & GTP/phosphocreatine.

Feces [i.e. undigested food product & indigestible staff=e.g. cellulose, mucous secretion, juice from liver, pancreas, other digestive gland; undestroyed enzyme; leukocyte; epithelial cell; cellular debris from intestinal wall; fat globule; nitrogenous protein product; mineral salt; water; large number of (100 billion/day & >75 type) bacteria=1/3rd of human feces weight is bacterial debris]= skatole molecule, C9H9N (organic 2 ringed crystalline solid found in feces, beetroot, coal tar) give human feces particular odor; in monotreme mammal (e.g. platypus, echidna), bird, reptile, fish, lower animal=urine is mixed with feces before evacuation via one hole.

Carbohydrate/Glucide (not mean ‘hydrate’ of carbon atom; ‘alcohol-aldehyde/ketone conjugate’; fermented into alcohol & finally oxidized to organic acid with CO2)=In nature, most abundant organic molecule (+ other organic molecule=produced by alga-e.g. one-celled alga/diatom/phytoplankton that has silica/SiO2-based CW/shell producing soft powdery porous rock=i.e. sand, green plant & cyanobacteria/spirulina through ‘photo-synthesis’-where light photon cause uptake of air CO2, H2O & ammonia into these organism-for their survival & growth)-formed by bonding of hydrogen & oxygen (being in same proportion seen in water) with carbon atom.

[sugar (Prefix: ‘glyco-’, ‘saccharo-’ & Suffix: ‘-ose’)=‘water soluble’ group among carbohydrate-namely mono-/‘simple’ sugar & oligo-/‘complex’ sugar=i.e. other than poly-/‘complex’ carbohydrate; sugar join to form poly-; All plant sugar is made by ‘photosynthesis’; most widespread of sugar is hexose & pentose; All hexose (i.e. D- & L-isomer) convert into Dextrose inside animal body; like base/alkali/alcohol/metal/cation/electron-donor (to acid/non-metal/anion)=sugar-except sucrose-is reductant-i.e. it make acid/anion/non-metal to take electron; sugar is used to make food, alcohol, citric acid, soap, plastic, ester, ether etc; industrially important sugar is di- & glucose; Saccharide/Oside=holoside + glycoside; Holoside=oligo- + poly-]

Fermentation=by enzyme (source-artificial/useful microorganism), breaking down of complex molecule (e.g. sugar) into simpler molecule (e.g. alcohol/acid); formed simpler molecule target harmful microbe; used in cheese making from milk-as milk sugar is broken down into lactic acid that curdle/coagulate milk protein & thus form ‘ sour cheese’.

Function: (inside cell, carbohydrate is broken down to get primary fuel/chemical energy or used as raw material to produce other biomolecule)

immediate & reserve (e.g. in plant=starch, in animal=glycogen) energy, structure (e.g. in plant cell wall=cellulose & hemicellulose, in exoskeleton of arthropod=chitin, in CM=as glycoprotein etc), industrial manufacture of various product (e.g. in paper/plastic-like celluloid/varnish/rayon-i.e. synthetic textile fiber/cement/explosive/soap=as nitrocellulose/Pyroxylin/guncotton; in preparation of various food for livestock & human=starch; in adhesive or gel/confectionary/medicine=pectin, agar, gum arabic/acacia, dextran, heparin sulfate, lactose).

Polysaccharide/‘complex carbohydrate’ [polymer formed by bonding of 1 or different type of ‘simple’ sugar; formula=(C6H10O5)x,x=50 to many thousand]=glycogen (10 type; similar to ‘amylopectin’ part of starch; source=muscle/meat & liver), starch (25 type; Prefix=‘amyl-/amylo-’; has 2 part-‘amylose’=water soluble/unbranched/twisted 20% part , break into maltose & ‘amylopectin’=insoluble/branched part; in plant-oxidized to CO2, water & energy; source=inside cereal & plant bulb-like stem/root tuber, corm, rhizome), dextrin (smaller molecule of water soluble starch made from starch paste; used in ‘beer’ production; finally hydrolyzed into maltose & then glucose), cellulose (100 to 200 type; not soluble in ordinary solvent; most abundant poly- in plant kingdom; bacterial ‘cellulase’ in digestive tract of herbivore break it into amyloid [a GP made by ‘complex protein fiber + polysaccharide-mainly amylopectin’], amylose or glucose; naturally bonded with woody, fatty, or gummy molecule; source=in cell wall & form timber, plant fiber [also derive gelling agent ‘mixture’ of poly-=called insoluble pectin/pectic acid, source-cell wall], some insect), hemicellulose, chitin (cellulose-like polysaccharide; source=in cuticle of arthropod, cell wall of fungus), agarose (source-seaweed/ocean alga extract=called ‘agar’-gelling agent [also derive insoluble ‘algin/alginic acid’] used as medium in chromatography, electrophoresis & growth for microbe including fungus, alga, moss & fern), gum arabic/acacia, dextran, heparin sulfate, inulin (fructose based homopoly-; source-root/tuber of elecampane) etc.[-Amylase=found in saliva, pancreas-break amylase into dextrin>glucose; -Amylase=found in malt-break amylase into dextrin>maltose>glucose; -Amylase=found in yeast, lysosome of liver cell-show same action as ; In muscle-end product of glucose metabolism-lactic acid form glycogen in liver again]

Fungus (e.g. mushroom, mold, yeast) is non-photosynthetic but alga/seaweed is photosynthetic; moss has no frond but fern has frond-large divided leaf; cyanobacteria/spirulina is photosynthetic.

Oligosaccharide (number of component mono-/ose per ‘oside’ molecule=2 to 5)

Disaccharide (2 monosaccharide joined by a oxygen atom, with removal of 1 water molecule)=e.g. sucrose (also called cane sugar; water soluble; needle-like crystal-got from sugarcane & sugar beet-break into invert sugar-i.e. mixture of glucose & fructose; rotate/deflect plane of polarized light to right=i.e. dextro-rotatory; used in making infant food & beverage), lactose (less sweet & less water soluble than sucrose & glucose; hard & gritty crystal-got after evaporation of whey and coagulation/precipitation of casein; on hydrolysis-break into glucose & galactose; by fermenting enzyme-converted into FA=lactic acid & butyric acid; rotate/deflect plane of polarized light to right=i.e. dextro-rotatory; basic carbohydrate for baby & young mammal) & maltose (also called malt sugar; water soluble & easily digested; needle-like crystal-got from amylose part of starch-break into glucose; rotate/deflect plane of polarized light to right=i.e. dextro-rotatory; used in making infant food & beverage); trehalose=like ATP, source of energy for insect, fungus, alga (including: lichen=fungus-alga composite), bacteria.

[intestinal bacteria-based fermentation on undigested carbohydrate make 2 gas=CO2 & H2S-that cause pain & distension and 2 FA=lactic acid & acetic acid-that cause diarrhea in infant; Malt=germinated cereal/grain-develop after water-soaking & then drying, often powered & marketed after mixing with milk powder, commonly used as any beverage/liquor/brew; Invert sugar-i.e. mixture of glucose & fructose, this mixture is levo-rotatory, source=honey, fruit, fermented sugarcane & sugar beet-as sucrose is broken down here by invertase/saccharase & sucrase; Caramel=burned/heated/melted sucrose, Latin=‘canna’=cane & ‘mel’=honey;]

Monosaccharide/Ose [also called ‘simple’ sugar; Cn(H2O)n] =e.g. triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose (e.g. Aldehyde based [most abundant type of hexose]=glucose & galactose [break into glucose finally]; Ketone based=fructose; fucose [form poly- in seaweed/alga ‘fucus’]), heptose, octose & nonose.

[same or different carbon atom number-based mono- may join to form ‘complex’ sugar/oligo-]

Glucose/Glycose [also called dextrose/grape sugar/blood sugar]=source-honey, juice of many fruits (as invert sugar), hydrolyzed glycoside (& also sucrose, maltose, cellulose, starch, glycogen, AA, Fat/Oil etc); break into ethyl alcohol (in plant; but in human-into lactic acid from pyruvic acid) & CO2; used as sweetener in food-processing industry, tanning-i.e. leather making industry, drug making industry, in medicine-as IV feeding; main fuel for muscle to produce energy.

[Too much pituitary hormone or too little insulin-e.g. in DM=abnormally raise blood glucose level; Uncontrolled diabetic patient die by poison=‘ketone’-a product of altered fat metabolism that body consume in place of sugar; critical test for DM is neither hyperglycemia nor glycosuria, but blood glucose tolerance=percentage remain high in diabetic but in normal individual excess glucose is rapidly converted into glycogen; adrenaline and glucagon catalyze glycogen to glucose break down; cortical hormone & thyroxin also control carbo. meta.; Glucose is present in every cell and almost every fluid of body & its concentration and distribution is among the most important processes in human physiology]

Glocoside/Glycoside [sugar-nonsugar/aglycon conjugate]=water soluble & bitter tasting organic molecule that hydrolyze into sugar & nonsugar part; e.g. Saponin (sugar-sapogenin conjugate, sapogenin is steroid or triterpene-a essential oil) from soaproot=cleaning agent, foam producer-in fire-extinguishing fluid, steroid hormone synthesis; Digoxin from dried foxglove leave=heart stimulant; Indican from Indigo plant=used for dyeing; Nucleic acid (‘sugar-purine/pyrimidine-a phosphate group’ conjugate, adenine & guanine is purine/‘uric acid’ derived basic/alkali molecule and cytosine, thymine & uracil is pyrimidine based basic/alkali molecule) in all living cell, use-carry functional & structural information, source of energy (i.e. ATP-a ribonucleotide=adenine + ribose + triphosphate); Amygdalin (Latin ‘amygdala’-almond; sugar-hydrogen cyanide conjugate)=source-almond, apricot & peach seed, use-expectorant; Chitin (cellulose-like poly->glucose-AA & CaCO3 conjugate); In plant, it prevent bird & insect eating seed & fruit before they are fully grown-by which time it convert into sweet sugar; Also, it impart antiseptic protection to damaged plant tissue by converting into phenol/acid molecule by glycosidase enzyme.

[uric acid=organic acid having ‘amine’ group-found in blood & urine, In liver & kidney-uricase break it; Pyridine=toxic flammable liquid with strong odor; Histone=a protein bound to DNA & cause coiling of chromosome; Protamine=arginine-rich peptide –bound to chromosome & condense DNA]

Metabolism=chemical reactions inside cell of organism. Both anabolic & catabolic reactions are inter-connected/linked by specific pathway in producing an end-molecule. It ensures use of photon to induce chemical reaction & release of thermal energy via respiration etc.

Endergonic reaction (i.e. energy using=e.g. oxidative reaction inside cell)/Resynthesis/Anabolism [its effect=growth, weight gain]=using heat/thermal energy via enzyme-catalyzed reaction & starting reaction with simple, intermediary molecule-makes complex/macro-molecule/polymer (e.g. carbohydrate, protein, fat or NA-based complex molecule)-needed for growth of new cell & maintenance of tissue. E.g. during photosynthesis, in cell’s mitochondria-building of AMP/ADP into ATP by using thermal/chemical energy.

Exergonic reaction (i.e. energy producing)/Degradation/Catabolism [prominent in=starvation, disease]=using enzyme & at opposite direction of anabolic reaction-complex/macro-molecule/polymer is broken into simple molecule (e.g. waste molecule-that is excreted through kidney/intestine/lung/skin)) along with production of thermal/chemical energy-needed for external & internal physical activity (via metabolic reaction at normal speed) , maintenance of body temperature etc. E.g. in all cell’s mitochondria, conversion of (high-energy PO4

- bond carrying) ATP molecule into ADP/AMP molecule along with releasing thermal/chemical energy.

Soil (often used for sewage/feces/excrement/dirt/debris)/Ground=top layer of earth’s land surface caused by decomposer= bacteria & fungi which act on detritivore (i.e. detritus/debris/damaged or discarded substance eating organism)= earthworm, many insect etc; source: decomposition of organism & erosion of rock/stone-thus producing sandy ground/sand.Component of rock/stone=silica/SiO2/silicate [with or without other element-like Na/K/Ca](various forms in silicate=quartz, opal, sand, flint, agate etc) & CaCO3/limestone.

Unlike machine, organism use own tissue (by catabolism)-to ensure free chemical/thermal energy for vital cell activity, after it exhausts all stored mass/molecule [i.e. excess catabolism].

ATP molecule (main immediate source of usable chemical/thermal energy-i.e. 7 kilocalorie during broken into ADP=for all activities of cell) is regarded as coenzyme-as it is either resynthesized (by anabolism in mitochondria) or broken down during enzyme based catalysis of metabolic reaction. Adenine=a nitrogen-containing molecule coming from uric acid-based ‘purine’ molecule (also as AMP-one of main part of DNA & RNA; other purine derivative is ‘guanine’) and ribose=a five-carbon simple sugar make ‘Adenosine [i.e. a glycoside]’. Adenylate cyclase break ATP into cyclic AMP (a form of AMP-that activate enzyme-used in action of hormone-like ACTH, epinephrine/adrenaline etc) while iron-containing protein molecule=cytochrome (with cytochrome oxidase) use chemical/thermal energy to make ADP into ATP. Creatine molecule (Arganine molecule for invertebrate animal)=For vertebrate muscle-including heart & brain cell, provide chemical/thermal energy-as ‘phospho-creatine’, in addition to ATP [as those tissue need enormous energy]; produced by liver & kidney; in mitochondria of those tissue-take PO4

- from ATP & form ‘phospho-creatine’.

Rate/speed-limiting enzyme action is inhibited by excess conc. of specific substrate/reactant (i.e. negative feedback)-e.g. excess ATP inhibit ATPase; Again excess conc. of enzyme molecule inside cell cause profound change in metabolism. In higher organism (animal & plant), nervous system & hormone alter permeability of target CM-thereby conc. of molecule inside cell is altered-thus affecting metabolism. Often, hormone alter catalytic site of target rate-limiting enzyme. Vitamin molecule also enhance metabolism of 3 main foodstuff (i.e. AA, lipid & carbohydrate).

Lipid is digested/hydrolyzed/decomposed in FA & glycerol that are resynthesized into neutral fat, cholesterol derivative, phospholipid etc inside cell-that are used in cell structure or stored-at end, catabolized/oxidized into CO2 & H2O which are excreted.

Complex carbohydrate is digested/hydrolyzed/decomposed in simple sugar (e.g. glucose) that are quickly catabolized/oxidized into chemical/thermal energy, CO2 & H2O; excess conc. of simple sugar is stored as complex carbohydrate [e.g. glycogen (in liver & muscle)/starch etc] or as fat in adipose tissue [when these reserves are filled].

Complex protein is digested/hydrolyzed/decomposed in 20 AA that are resynthesized into hormone, enzyme, various protein molecule etc inside cell-that are used in cell structure -at end, excess AA is catabolized/oxidized into CO2 & H2O which are excreted [but firstly N-terminal is detached=called ‘deamination’ of AA with which carbon & oxygen is attached to form urea, ammonia, uric acid etc nitrogenous molecule].

Hereditary defect-mediated enzyme lacking neither cause anabolism nor catabolism of specific molecule=rather intermediary metabolic molecule is accumulated inside cell=making cell damaged. This defect may appear in in early infancy or in adulthood; may be fatal or persist with no apparent harmful effect. Phenylketonuria-PKU [metabolic error of ‘phenylalanine’-cause brain damage in infant], Galactosemia [metabolic error of ‘galactose’-cause brain & liver damage and cataract]

>700 Enzyme/globular protein [Source=living cell; a substitute of required temperature (that would destroy most organic matter) for reaction]=ensure all physiological function (e.g. hear beat, lung expansion/contraction, meat digestion, cell/tissue making molecule, replacement of blood cell, release of chemical energy to move muscle etc).

Biocatalyst (e.g. enzyme, RNA etc) that increase speed/rate of bio-chemical reaction without being consumed in process-i.e. remain chemically unchanged by reaction; ‘promoter’/coenzyme/cofactor molecule (=i.e. non-protein part of enzyme-e.g. metal ion etc) increase effectiveness of some catalyst=e.g. promoter ‘alumina’ is added with catalyst ‘iron’ powder to form ammonia from mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen; ‘poison’ reduce effectiveness of catalyst=e.g. poison ‘lead compound’ reduce action of catalyst ‘platinum’-hence in automobile-catalytic converter (used for emission control) must be fueled with unleaded gasoline; Contact/heterogeneous catalyst-that has different phase/state to that of reactants & catalyze by ‘adsorption/contact’=e.g. ‘platinum’ powder used as catalytic converter in automobile to catalyze reaction between CO gas with air’s O2 gas to form CO2 (thus emission of ‘CO gas’ is prevented); Homogeneous catalyst-that has same phase/state to that of reactants & catalyze by forming intermediate molecule=e.g. catalyst nitrogen dioxide (NO2) catalyze reaction between sulfur dioxide (SO2) & oxygen to form SO3 (after forming intermediate molecule ‘NO’ via reaction between NO2&SO2-under extreme heat-which then reacts rapidly with oxygen to re-form NO2).

Pro-enzyme/Zymogen=inactive precursor of enzyme-secreted by living cell & activated by acid/ another enzyme/other catalytic means. [However each product act as catalyst for next reaction=auto-catalysis/Domino-effect]

Living cell’ CM (that may have anti-enzyme property which) prevent proteolytic enzyme to act upon it; however dead cell (become substrate for enzyme &) is digested by enzyme.

Regarding kinetics of enzyme reaction-both temperature (although increase in temperature may accelerate enzyme reaction, enzyme is unstable when heated; Minute quantities of an enzyme can accomplish at low temperature what would require violent reagent & high temperature by ordinary chemical means-e.g. About 30 g of pure crystalline pepsin digest about 2 metric ton of egg white in few hour), enzyme (esp. its AA sequence) & substrate/reactant/macro-molecule (esp. its tertiary/3D folded structure) is specific. [But pepsin/trypsin digest related all protein substrate while urease has specific substrate]

Based on type of involved reaction, enzyme/catalyst may be hydrolytic (i.e. hydrolase), oxidizing (i.e. oxidase) , reducing (i.e. reductase) etc.

Used in-Industrial process [20 percent of U.S. gross national product is generated through ‘catalysis’/enzyme=esp. semi-synthetic], Medical purpose (including in treating local inflammation, removing foreign matter/dead tissue from burn/wound)=e.g. trypsin-a pancreatic enzyme that digest proteins, L-asparaginase to treat leukemia, dextrinase to treat tooth decay, malfunction of enzyme lead to phenylketonuria, diabetes, anemia & other blood disorder.

Isozyme/Isoenzyme=functionally identical (but not in chemical structure) enzymes.Apoenzyme=protein part of enzyme with which coenzyme/cofactor bind to form active enzyme.

Nutrition=science of nutrient & its effect on maintenance of growth, reproduction & health. It may be non-essential (i.e. do not need to be obtained via food source=e.g. cholesterol) or essential/food (i.e. 7 nutrient/food type-need to be obtained via food source).

Nutrient/Nourishing molecule/Food (come from Latin nutrire ‘suckle’)=molecule (may be in ‘food’ form) that maintain growth, reproduction & health of plant/animal cell.

13 Vitamin nutrient=(synthetic or natural-that remain in small amount in food) organic molecule needed in very small/minute amount for effective metabolism (regarding 3 major nutrient-in producing all derived molecule) in most animal cell.

Mineral [macro/major, trace/minor (form enzyme-esp. antioxidant enzymes & all immune cell) & ultra-trace/micro type] nutrient [remain as ion]=element needed in very small/minute amount for effective metabolism (regarding 3 major nutrient-in producing all derived molecule) in all (plant/animal) cell; affect enzyme/vitamin/anti-oxidant [Major=calcium, chlorine, phosphorus, sodium; Trace=chromium, copper (form SOD), cobalt, fluoride, iodine, iron (form catalase), selenium (form GPX=glutathione peroxidase), manganese (form SOD-prevent CVD/AD/PD etc), magnesium [nerve fail without it], zinc (form SOD), potassium, sulfur, molybdenum; Ultra-trace=boron, silicon, arsenic, nickel (essential for animal)] [(SOD dismute superoxide into peroxide-which is removed by catalase/GPX)]Plant use mineral to make carbohydrate, protein, chlorophyll (i.e. Mg), ATP (i.e. P), activation of enzyme (i.e. K), maintenance of osmotic balance, firmness of fruit (i.e. Ca=ensure CW & CM’s stability/integrity).

Metabolism (of 3 major nutrient) is thousands of inter-linked chemical reaction-triggering one another-supported effectively by ‘vitamin & mineral’ (i.e. essential nutrient).

Mineral content [required as <1 to 2500 mg/day; major=>100 mg/dl; minor=<100 mg/dl] in everything (including water/soil/organism-animal, plant) is affected by chemical (e.g. pesticide/herbicide/fertilizer), genetic & location/environmental factor (e.g. food/feed processing method); general/common symptom of mineral deficiency is stunted growth & discolored leaves (yellowing of leaves=e.g. Mg & Fe deficiency-that needed for chlorophyll synthesis as cofactor); lack of K, P & N is most common in plant while lack of micronutrient is rare and depend on their lack in soil; Se is used to treat Hg toxicity;

In animal tissue, Rb show same distribution of K.Function (in short-form body tissue/maintain AB balance & regulate body fluid/transport gas & contract muscle)Ca=form bone/teeth; regulate function of nerve & muscle; activate all enzyme (hypocalcemia result spontaneous discharge of nerve impulse=i.e. tetany & convulsion)P=form bone/teeth, ATP, NA, IP, phosphate buffer in body fluid to regulate AB balanceFe=form Hb (O carrying molecule) & cytochrome (need for cell respiration)=related to cognition or learning capacity/immunity/work or psychomotor capacity/pregnancy complication-e.g. baby with LBW/even mother & child deathMg/Cu/Mn/Se/Mo/Zn/Fe=cofactor for enzymeI=form thyroid hormone (in vertebrate)Na/K/Cl=maintain osmotic balance between ICF & ISF Zn/Se=boost up immune systemCo=form vit. B12

Inter-relation of mineral in organism (so that cation-anion balance is maintained)K/P level antagonize/raise demand of Na/Ca level & vice versa (hence hyperkalemia & hypocalcemia show same ‘all type muscle contractibility’ effect); K (plant source=vegetable, fruit, nut) lack also raise demand of AA; Cu level antagonize/raise demand of Fe level; Fe/Cu/Co (found in vit. B12) is needed in Hb/RBC formation; Cu poisoning is treated by Mo sulfate; Cl ion is accompanied by H ion in equal amount; Excess Cl cause acidosis but excess Na cause alkalosis; excess Fe/Al/Mg/Mn prevent P absorption; Mg lack show tetany (like by low Ca); Also Mg/Zn/Cu lack cause reproductive complication; excess K/N prevent Mg absorption (hence show tetany effect).

Ca level is affected by light>vit. D, Ca-binding protein, parathormone & thyrocalcitonin; parathormone raise while thyrocalcitonin lower both Ca (plant source=leafy part; legume) & P (plant source=seed, banana) level (absorbed via duodenum in low intestinal pH; lactose enhance Ca absorption); excess Ca level depress cardiac activity (cardiac failure, cardiac arrest in systole) & respiratory failure.

P level=affected by vit. D & kidney reabsorption; its level lower in rickets/osteomalacia or dietary lack; form phospholipid, phosphoprotein, nucleoside-‘inosine’ based cyclic alcohol ‘IP’=a growth factor for organism & messenger molecule formed inside CM; promote growth/maturity of plant-hence added to soil as fertilizer; remain in seed as phytic acid-broken by ruminant animal (make possible by phytase of rumen microbe)-not by monogastric animal Chain of affecting factor of mineral=Factor>Soil (esp. soil bacteria)>Plant (light & mineral from air/soil)>Animal/Human.Nonmetal (including organic molecule as ion form) ion covalently bonded with metal ion=Chelation (used as treatment of metal poisoning); e.g. oxalate/phytate etc bind divalent metal ion like Zn/Ca/Fe/P/Mg etc

Na & K=affected by aldosterone; form osmotic pressure of body fluid, buffer in body fluid to regulate AB balance, activate nerve & muscle function (as Na maintain RMP & transmit nerve impulse via involving in Na/K ATPase); make absorb of monosaccharide/AA/pyrimidine/bile salt; its lack in chick-cause growth retardation & in hen-reduce egg production/hatching potential while hypokalemia in lactating cow lower milk production.

Cl=exchange very easily with other anion (esp. HCO3)-e.g. across RBC; Cl of gastric HCl come from blood Cl & after digestion-return to blood across lower intestine; Cl lack in body is replaced by HCO3-resulting alkalosis; excreted as NaCl/KCl or as NH4Cl-when base need to be conserved (i.e. in acidosis).

Mg=form bone/teeth, act as enzyme (e.g. kinase) cofactor; its lack in young chick-result poor growth/feathering & in human-tetany/convulsion; plant source-leafy green vegetable (containing chlorophyll).

Cr=its lack cause PEM, metabolic syndrome (atherosclerosis/insulin resistance); promote insulin-mediated AA carry to ‘heart protein’, act as cross-linking agent for collagen/NA (e.g. RNA); source=nut/cheese/whole grain/meat/liver;

Co=in ruminant-rumen bacteria use it to produce vit. B12 [that is used to form choline & thymine (a component for DNA synthesis)]; source=animal origin/fermented food; its lack is same as vit. B12 [i.e. anemia/skeletal muscle wasting/fatty liver] & its toxicity include goiter/hypothyroidism/heart failure;

Cu=form almost all enzyme (thus help forming bone, Hb, myelin sheath & ensure growth/reproduction), ceruloplasmin (Cu-carrying blood protein); it help ferric iron to join transferrin (blood protein carrying iron to bone marrow=for Hb production); it excrete via bile & urine; source=nut/whole grain/sea food/liver.

I=stored in thyroid as thyroglobulin (glycoprotein-made by AA ‘tyrosine’ & iodine=making T1-4 hormone); source=iodized salt/sea food. [its lack in soil represent limitation in food exchange]

Fe=form Hb, Mb, NT, myelin sheath, enzyme (i.e. cytochrome c/c1/a1) of cell respiration/oxidation; P based molecule (e.g. phytic acid, oxalic acid-by forming insoluble Fe PO4) & glucocorticoid hormone (i.e. during stress) antagonize Fe absorption; source=red/organ meat/egg yolk/nut/dark vegetable/iron ware used in cooking.

Mn=(as cofactor) form enzyme in making GP, PG (e.g. that used in cartilage), MP (e.g. chondroitin sulfate-that used as matrix/stroma in bone/egg shell), urea & pyruvate molecule; excess Ca, Fe & P based diet antagonize Mn absorption; In animal=its lack cause deformed skeletal-joint-egg shell- otolith formation/impaired growth & reproduction/parkinsonism & psychotic disorder; source=nut/whole grain/tea (corn is very low in Mn).

Mo=component of enzyme (for making S-based AA/N-based NA/uric acid/Fe release from ferritin into cell as ferrous form/N use in plant) [xanthine is precursor of uric acid]; its lack cause xanthine calculi/gout; source=nut/whole grain/dairy product/meat (esp. organ meat).

Se (organic form, not inorganic form-as that act as oxidant & cause oxidative damage to DNA)=component of GPX (main anti-oxidant against FR’s oxidative damage over CM-via destroying H2O2); show same action of vit. E/-tocopherol (prevent forming lipid hydroperoxide) & coenzyme-Q/ubiquinone; its lack cause myopathy (both skeletal, cardiac & smooth-resulting retained placenta)/poor growth & reproduction/IDDs; its toxicity cause hair loss/dermatitis; source=sea food/egg/ whole grain.

Si [remain as silicic acid, Si(OH)4]=component (acting as cross linking agent for newly made molecule) of some MP, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin-4-sulfate, glycosaminoglycan (all make CT=like collagen/bone/cartilage etc); antagonize Al level but promote Cu utilization; source=whole grain/root vegetable.

Zn [acting as cofactor]=ensure NA/AA etc metabolism (including insulin hormone/vit. A & E) via forming major enzyme (e.g. alkaline phosphatase=needed for skeletal formation, DNA/RNA polymerase=gene expression); its absorbed form go to liver where Zn based enzyme is formed & then released to blood (where Zn is bound to albumin mainly)>then to peripheral/target cell; its lack cause thick skin & poor reproduction/growth/feathering/wound healing/taste & smell acuity; Zn antagonize Ca & Fe level; source=dairy/poultry product, vegetable, sea food.

F=increase hardness of bone (by calcification-as it has more affinity with Ca) & enamel tissue of teeth (by making fluorhydroxyapatite); As enzyme inhibitor-it reduce bacterial acid production in teeth area-thus prevent & treat dental caries; its lack result osteoporosis & dental caries; By enzyme inhibition in odontoblast/osteoblast-its toxicity result erosion/mottling of teeth/exostosis of bone/thick & ankylosed joint; source=fluorinated water/tea/marine fish with bone/toothpaste/Teflon (i.e. polytetrafluoroethylene-a nonstick plastic) cookware.

S=ensure disulfide linkage/bonding in forming 3 AA (cystine/cysteine/methionine) based protein molecule-e.g. CT [skin/hair/nail], 2 vit. B complex [thiamine/biotin], coenzyme A, cyanate (SCN-found in saliva etc fluid), ergothioneine (found in RBC), glutathione (found in all cell), chondroitin sulfate (that form cartilage/bone/tendon/blood vessel wall); its lack in ruminant result poor feed intake/digestibility/rate of weight gain/milk production; sulfur based molecule excreted as taurine (after conjugated with cholic acid to be released via bile) & as inorganic sulfate (after conjugated with phenol/glucoronic acid/indoxyl to be released via urine) ; source=protein rich food.

[ruminant feed mainly on N based molecule-e.g. urea/ biuret/ammonium phosphate]

Pb (with As/Cd/Hg)=alter epithelial & sperm cell (i.e. male reproductive system) structure and lower androgen hormone level.

Essential element/Mineral nutrient (play role in all enzyme activity inside plant) for plant (>50 element found in plant=thus reflecting underlying soil composition also-that may also even include Si, Ag, Au, B in plant)-C=entered as atmospheric CO2; H=from water; O=from water; rest of element=from soil-as inorganic ion (selectively absorbed via root)

9 Water soluble vitamin (8 B complex=6 member=1-3, 6, 12, FA; C)=not stored in body & (if taken in excess than demand) expelled via urine-hence those vitamin-enriched food should be taken daily to mitigate body’s need.

4 Fat soluble vitamin is absorbed with fat enriched food (separated by bile-from fatty food) & excess amount is stored in body’s fat, liver & kidney tissue-hence fatty food should not be taken daily to mitigate body’s need.

Liver [hydration/’S’ containing AA/dietary (cholesterol providing) fat is urgent for liver’s proper function-i.e. bile making & molecule detoxification]=‘cholesterol’ factory;

13 (9+4) Vitamin [Latin vita "life" + amine-i.e. organic derivative of ‘ammonia’-whose hydrogen is replaced by ‘alkane’ group; organic catalyst that bind pro-enzyme & activate it for metabolism-thus needed for formation of hormone, blood cell, nervous-system chemical, genetic material=i.e. NA; human body only form vitamin D-so, others must be derived from diet] & mineral-ensure cell to do various function and prevent onset of their deficiency disorder.

vitamin E=form RBC, muscle cell etc & prevent oxidation of fat’s FA and vit. A [found in green leafy vegetable/vegetable oil, wheat germ & liver].

vitamin K=form enzyme ‘pro-thrombin’ (that is needed to form insoluble fibrous protein ‘fibrin’-that came from soluble protein ‘fibrinogen’ in liver cell) [found in green leafy vegetable-including ‘alfalfa’/vegetable oil, liver-including fish liver, egg yolk + bacteria in human bowel].

vitamin D/sunshine vitamin [its pro-active form is ‘7-dehydrocholesterol’=found in skin & activate to vit. D by UV; actually food’s sterol migrate to skin & irradiated by UV]=improve calcium & phosphorus absorption-thus ensure retaining hydrated calcium phosphate molecule [also called ‘hydroxyapatite’] in bone, cartilage & teeth; excess dose cause kidney damage, lethargy & anorexia; lack of Ca/P/vit. D cause rickets (i.e. abnormal bone formation/skeletal deformity) & osteomalacia (i.e. bone softening-causing pain & weakness) [found in egg yolk, tuna, liver, vitamin-D fortified milk]Ammonia=highly water soluble colorless pungent gas; derived from Egyptian god ‘Ammon’ near whose temple ammonia and ammoniac (a plant sap/gum/resin) were found.

Yolk in embryo sac [analogue in plant=‘endosperm’-starchy tissue surrounding embryo plant inside seed]=fat+protein mixed ‘yellow’ part-providing nutrition for early embryo (before placenta formation in mammal); seen in bird, fish, reptile & mammal and enclosed by yolk sac

vitamin A [carotene mediated primary alcohol]=form & maintain skin/mucous membrane/ bone/teeth/vision/reproduction; deficiency cause lacking of all secretion [making skin/mucous membrane/eye dry>prone to bacterial infection] & night blindness [i.e. difficulty in adapting to darkness]; excess dose cause impaired growth, stopped menstruation, damage RBC, skin rash, headache, nausea, jaundice [found in plant diet (as precursor ‘carotene’) like vegetable-carrot, broccoli, squash, spinach, kale, sweet potato; in animal diet (as vit. A) like milk, butter, cheese, egg yolk, liver/fish-liver oil]

vitamin C/ascorbic acid=form & maintain protein ‘collagen’ [thus loss of cementing action of collagen result hemorrhage/loosening of teeth/cellular change in long bone of children etc=together called ‘scurvy’-that occur in adult after about six month of its complete lack]; favor iron absorption from food source; prevent tumor-producing ‘nitrosamine’ formation in body; unused vit. C is excreted via urine-yet large/prolonged dose may form bladder/kidney stone, interfere with blood-thinning drug, destroy B12, loss of calcium from bone [found in citrus fruit (e.g. citron, grapefruit, lemon, lime, orange, shaddock /pomelo, tangerine)/fresh strawberry/cantaloupe/pineapple/guava; vegetable source is tomato/spinach/cabbage/brussels sprout &Kale (a type of cabbage)/broccoli (a type of cauliflower)/green pepper/turnip]

Biotin [C10H16N2O3S; Gk-biotos/bios=life]=form FA molecule & energy release via carbohydrate catabolism; its deficiency cause anemia/alopecia/anorexia/eczema or dermatitis [found in egg yolk, liver & other food+ bacteria in human bowel]

Pantothenic acid/ pantothenate (i.e. ester of pantothenic acid) [Greek pantothen=from all side; i.e. found in all food+ bacteria in human bowel]=ensure growth.

Folic acid/folacin [Latin folium=leaf-as found in leafy green vegetable & liver (i.e. unlike other water soluble vitamin-it is stored in liver=hence not needed to take daily); it is lost from food that is stored at room temperature & during cooking]=coenzyme that help forming protein molecule (including Hb molecule); its deficiency cause anemia, ‘opened vertebral column’ [presented as hydrocephalus, paraplegia, increased level of alpha-fetoprotein molecule (that come from fetal liver) in maternal blood/amniotic fluid-hence it must be taken upto 3 month of pregnancy]

Cobalamin/B12 [cobalt + vitamin]=form protein (including nucleo-protein as seen in chromosome & myelin sheath) & ensure function of RBC and intestinal epithelium [found only in animal food=e.g. liver, meat, fish, egg, milk etc-hence vegetarian must take its supplement]

Pyridoxine/B6 [C18H11NO3; oxidized toxic flammable ‘pyridine’>pyrimidine (pyridine + imide= that also form cytosine, thymine, uracil=found in NA)>B6>pyridoxal & pyridoxamine=both are amine/coenzyme-used for synthesis of AA; also favor absorption of protein]=its deficiency cause skin disorder-including crack at mouth corner & smooth tongue, convulsion, dizziness/nausea, anemia, kidney stone [found in whole cereal, vegetable-including spinach & green bean, banana, yeast, liver, fish]

Niacin/Nicotinic acid/B3 [C6H5NO2; toxic alkaloid ‘nicotine’ + acid; body make it from essential AA ‘tryptophan’-found in protein-casein (precursor of cheese) & fibrin (come from liver-made water soluble protein ‘fibrinogen’); reduce cholesterol level-hence used to treat atherosclerosis; its large dose cause liver damage]=form 2 co-enzyme (as amide of niacin)-NAD (transfer‘electron’ in energy-extracting reaction from nutrient) & NADP (used in various anabolic/synthetic reaction); its deficiency cause ‘pellagra’ (Italian pelle "skin" + agra "rough" or -agra "seizure; due to ‘protein-lacking’-showing sun burnt appearance/rough/scaly/red/bulla in sun-exposed skin, painful mouth lesion-including red & swollen tongue, weight loss, insomnia, diarrhea, vertigo, depression/irritability/confusion, muscular tremor) [found in whole cereal, vegetable, dairy product, canned tuna/salmon & dried pea/bean/nut]

Vitamin G/Riboflavin/B2 [C17H20N4O6; yellow part among vit. B group-act as coenzyme that bind with enzyme of metabolism for carbohydrate, fat & respiratory protein (these protein maintain mucous membrane)]=ensure skin health & help forming all adrenal hormone; its deficiency cause skin lesion (i.e. eczema/dermatitis) around lip & nose, burning eye & light hypersensitivity [found in whole cereal, fresh dark green leafy vegetable-including edible mushroom (fungus), egg, dairy product-i.e. liver, meat, milk, cheese, yogurt]

Thiamine/B1 [sulfur containing ‘ammonia based organic’ molecule-act as catalyst in absorption of pyruvic acid (i.e. carbohydrate catabolism toward energy release) & synthesis of nerve-regulating molecule-thus maintaining all body physiology-e.g. digestion]=its deficiency (due to polished cereal intake/malnutrition) affect CNS & muscular system [found in whole cereal, fresh dark green leafy vegetable-including yeast (fungus), egg, dairy product-i.e. liver, meat, milk, cheese, yogurt]

vitamin C=maintain bone & teeth and prevent scurvy (that affect skin, muscle & gum),vitamin B1=support neuromuscular action and prevent beriberi (that affect nerve-including brain & muscle-including heart),folic acid=support nerve and prevent nervous system defect,vitamin A (as beta-carotene), C & E=are anti-oxidant that counter harm of ‘free radical’ (source: environmental pollutant-e.g. cigarette smoke etc; transform body’s molecule into carcinogenic molecule & thus make cell vulnerable of their effect)Calcium [nerve fail without it]=make & maintain strong bone/teeth and prevent osteoporosis (i.e. bone thinning-that may cause fracture; cause of bone loss=low Ca intake/Alcohol abuse/smoking/lack of exercise/menopause (i.e. estrogen deficiency)/use of steroid drug) in adult & weak bone in child; intake of >2.5 gm/day (which is Tolerable Upper Intake Level-UL, Adequate Intake-AI=1 gm to 1.3 gm/day) result kidney stone/failure & impaired absorption of iron, zinc & magnesium. Scientists do not yet know how much calcium is needed to prevent osteoporosis. [however, bone loss-due to estrogen deficiency/physical inactivity/ alcohol abuse/smoking/medical disorder/treatment-will not countered by high calcium intake]

Alcohol is a sole-calorie supplier but lack in all nutrient/vitamin/mineral & badly affect liver>heart>kidney>edema (ascites, dyspnea); cause high blood level of adrenaline & deficiency of mineral magnesium=ensuring dysrrythmia; in chronic drinker-HTN>stroke is seen.

Plant source of Calcium=green bean/string bean, artichoke (i.e. flower bud), asparagus (a shoot/sprout-i.e. newly grown branch & leaf bud), broccoli, kohlrabi, cabbage [& its variant like-kale, collard, brussel sprout (a tiny cabbage), chinese cabbage/‘bok choy’], okra, turnip greens/leaves, spinach, avocado fruit, (butternut) pumpkin/squash & it’s seed, almond/nut (including brazil nut), sesame, coconut meat,

Feature of malnutrition (a dietary condition-related health problem-causing imbalance of nutrient level in organism)=body become weak & less able to fight infection, brain may be sluggish-react slowly, body taps its stored fat for energy & then muscle is broken down to use for energy, body become dry up, heart cease to pump properly & finally death.

Only 1 cause of ‘malnutrition (over-/under-nutrition)’=unbalanced nutrient inside body-due to inadequate nutrition education; intake of unbalanced diet (e.g. a person may get enough/excess calorie/day-yet still be undernourished=due to lack of ‘vitamin & mineral’ etc) or not having enough food (e.g. seen with poverty/war/famine/disease-bulimia, anorexia nervosa etc),

Some example of malnutrition=Obesity (=i.e. having too much body lipid tissue-mainly fat & cholesterol, cause-too much calorie intake)-linked to high blood pressure/hypertension, DM, heart problem/disease, cancer (esp. of colon, prostate, breast & uterus), arthritis.High blood pressure/hypertension (may resulted from eating too many salty food, cause heart to work too hard & put strain/pressure on artery)-linked to (brain) stroke (=blockage/rupture of cerebral artery), MI/heart attack, kidney failure.Atherosclerosis (i.e. cholesterol & fat-esp. saturated fat deposit in artery=cause reduction in blood flow, resulted from intake of diet-high in cholesterol & fat-esp. saturated fat)-linked to (brain) stroke (=blockage/rupture of cerebral artery), MI/heart attack, kidney failure.

Lipid-(saturated & unsaturated) fat & cholesterol=Among ‘recommended’ daily calorie, it must be maximum 30%; ideally 10% (=as exceeding 30% raise risk of obesity & its subsequent ‘linked’ 5 disease). [Actually, diet-low in fat & cholesterol ensure ‘perfect’ maintenance of health and reduce risk of obesity; surprisingly ‘monounsaturated’ fat-e.g. olive, peanut, canola/rapeseed, avocado-decrease ‘LDL’ & ‘VLDL’ but increase ‘HDL’; However, ‘polyunsaturated’ fat-e.g. soybean, corn, sunflower, safflower, (trans fat enriched) margarine-decrease ‘HDL’-if >10% of daily calorie is taken; Again, ‘saturated’ fat-e.g. found from beef to ice cream, mozzarella cheese to doughnut-increase ‘LDL’ & ‘VLDL’ but decrease ‘HDL’-if >10% of daily calorie is taken=thereby, harmful to heart and blood vessel; Cholesterol can be excluded in diet-as liver & small intestine produce cholesterol for body].

Protein (ideally 10% of ‘recommended’ daily calorie)-(to maintain health) Average male adult need 57 gm (& adult female need 45 gm) protein daily [but infant & young children-both male & female baby (+ ill, stressed, pregnant-55 gm, breast feeder-65 gm=as body build new tissue or fight infection) need more protein per day than adult and an adolescent boy need more protein than an adolescent girl-because of sex hormone induced muscle bulk & bone structure difference; excess AA-taken beyond body demand-is destroyed & excreted in their ‘byproduct’ form; animal product-e.g. meat/fish/egg/milk has all 10 (for human out of >20 AA) essential AA-that body need while plant product-e.g. fruit/nut/husk/pod/bran containing seed/kernel/bean/legume/core/cereal/grain/crop-lack one or more essential AA; form/build & repair/maintain body tissue/structure, speed up chemical reaction in body, serve as chemical messenger-that coordinate body’s function, fight infection, transport oxygen from lung to body’s tissue]

(Complex) carbohydrate [which is also enriched in vitamin, mineral, some protein & dietary fiber/roughage]=Among ‘recommended’ daily calorie, it must be 50%; e.g. whole-grain like= oat/barley/rye/wheat/rice/corn, vegetable (potato, legume=pea & bean); processed/junk food filled with simple sugar/fat offer no nutritional value other than ‘empty’ calorie from simple sugar/fat only (i.e. offer none of 7 nutrient=esp. vitamin & mineral-that found naturally in complex carbohydrate)-hence it must not be >10% of daily diet calorie.

(Indigestible dietary plant) Fiber/Roughage (it is component of CW that provide no energy/calorie or other biomolecule)=insoluble type (speed up elimination of feces-hence decrease exposure time of its harmful molecule with colon wall-thereby reducing risk of colon cancer) found in whole-grain & vegetable; soluble type (bind potentially dangerous molecule in stomach=e.g. dietary cholesterol & prevent/reduce its absorption in small intestine-thereby reducing risk of ‘high cholesterol level’-mediated problem like obesity, atherosclerosis & their complication) found in whole-grain (esp. oat & barley), vegetable (esp. legume=pea & bean) & fruit (esp. apple, strawberry & citrus fruit).

(naturally occurring) Sugar (e.g. sucrose/lactose/maltose)=found in fruit, vegetable, milk product, honey, maple sugar & sugar cane; body break complex carbohydrate (i.e. starch & naturally occurring sugar) into simple sugar (e.g. glucose) to maintain healthful glucose level.

Simple sugar (e.g. glucose/fructose/galactose)=refined from naturally occurring sugar & added to junk/processed food (e.g. candy bar)-require little digestion & quickly absorbed by body-elevating glucose level & thereby triggering release of insulin quickly (that may make a person irritable/nervous transiently-because glucose level fall so low that ‘anti-insulin’ hormone=glucagon has to release to make the irritable person normal).

Glucose [fuel CNS, maintain/reserve functional/tissue protein, form lipid molecule]=enter directly in brain cell & RBC; (with insulin) enter liver cell & muscle cell (to form glycogen that form glucose again when body need more energy) and fat cell (where glucose is stored as fat molecule/glycerol+fatty acid combination-e.g. seen in nut/seed, animal fat=that is also backup source of energy); other breakdown product of complex carbohydrate (e.g. fructose/galactose) enter liver cell & form glucose.

Water [has no caloric value/energy but its absence in diet-food wouldn’t be digested/absorbed or body’s waste wouldn’t be eliminated; soft tissue & joint need water-made cushion; maintain natural balance between dissolved salts & water inside & outside of cell; a person survive 8-10 day without water-while survive week or even month without other food]=it is 65% of human body & replenished daily in normal person by 8-10 cup drinking liquid (except-caffeine & alcohol-as they raise urine output-hence dehydrate further)/fruit & vegetable (that has 80%-95% water)/meat (that has 50% water)/grain (that has 35% water) [Actually its daily need rely on volume of daily lost water]; circulate through blood & lymphatic system-ensuring oxygen, nutrient & waste (via urine, sweat, digestive tract, lung) transportation

(>100 identified) Hormone/chemical messenger [& act via 2nd messenger]=molecule that carry information/instruction between cell in animal & plant [hormone in all vertebrate has same structure & function]; regulate growth & development/control function of various tissue/support reproductive function/regulate metabolism (process to break food to create energy); it may have many effect on same cell at different time of life; it may activate/inactivate specific gene in DNA [thus alter cell’s activity like alter CM permeability or cause release of other hormone-e.g. steroid hormone bind to specific site of DNA]; it may regulate RNA [that is used for protein synthesis-thus may alter enzyme activity]; information/instruction sent along nervous tract (as ion/electrical transmission) has quick & short-timed effect [while hormone has slow & long-timed effect];

Unlike other body cell, neuron/nerve cell (esp. its dendrite via receptor/sensor) produce impulse (maintained perfectly by insulating ‘myelin’ in myelinated neuron=e.g. sensory neuron/neuron connected to skeletal muscle but spread diffusely in non-myelinated neuron) after taking sensory input (due to transient reversal of pre-existing static voltage/RMP=via influx of Na ion) & can release >2 NT;

However nervous system-related info./instruction [which is mediated by neuron-made NT molecule solely or via 2nd messenger release (e.g. cyclic adenosine monophosphate, diacylglycerol, inositol phosphate)-that ensure NT production] from neuron/nerve cell to neuron (e.g. seen in CNS) & from neuron to muscle/gland cell (e.g. seen in PNS); axon may be millimeter or meter in length; velocity of nerve impulse (in thin axon=<1 meter/second & in thick axon going to muscle=100 meter/second)

With enzyme, neuron use precursor molecule=AA (tryptophan, tyrosine, threonine), glucose (make glutamate, aspartate, GABA), dietary amine (e.g. choline) to make NT; in CNS-each neuron release single NT (e.g. glutamate, GABA found in cerebral cortex etc & involved in thought, perception processing etc) while in PNS-some neuron release both amine & peptide type NT; new NT are adenosine, histamine, enkephalin, endorphin, epinephrine.

NT/signaling molecule [3 common family-amine, peptide, AA/glucose]=

Amine=e.g. acetylcholine (choline+acetate; ensure neuron to any muscle cell contact; choline is soluble amine found in animal/plant tissue used in fat transport)/dopamine (di+oxy+phenyl+alanine; German ‘alanin’=aldehyde; an AA both made by body & found in protein food; control brain/CNS function & human behavior esp. in CNS-control voluntary movement & emotion/smell/autonomic process)/serotonin (sero+tonic; AA tryptophan derivative & widely distributed in tissues; also constrict blood vessels at injury site-after releasing from platelet; block gastric acid production & contract bowel muscle)/norepinephrine (maintain normal blood circulation; main NT in ANS; also called levoarterenol)

Peptide=contain 2-100 AA; e.g. substance P etc.

AA=serotonin (from tryptophan=that come from dairy product); dopamine, norepinephrine/levoarterenol (from tyrosine=also precursor of epinephrine, thyroxine, melanin; Greek ‘turos’=cheese; tyrosine>dopa-made in liver & released in blood>dopamine-made in CNS); glycine (from threonine)

Glucose=glutamate, aspartate, GABA (an AA that prevent nerve impulse transmission)

[serotonin blocker (e.g. ondansetron) ensure control of nausea/HTN/amnesia; serotonin-like molecule or production promoter ensure (e.g. zolmitriptan-via vasoconstriction in brain; dexfenfluramine-via serving fullness/satiety in CNS) control of migraine (where arteries swell in brain causing headache)/obesity/psychiatric disorder-depression, OCD (where repetitive & disturbing thought occur that trigger bizarre & aggressive behavior)]

[High dopamine level result narcolepsy, chorea while its low level result Parkinson disease]

[in some adrenal tumor-large amount of epinephrine & norepinephrine are released creating HTN]

[epinephrine stimulate heart & raise BP-hence used in shock; constrict small BV-hence used to prevent bleeding; but expand lung bronchiole’s smooth muscle-hence used in acute asthma]

[histamine (a constituent in all animal cell)=AA histidine (that is used for tissue repair)-based amine made by ergot fungus (that attack cereal)/basophil (a WBC)/mast cell (a CT cell/WBC that also release heparin during allergy, mast cell is plenty in lung & intestine, when allergen bind with ‘allergy-induced Ig E (that released from B cell & attached)’on CM of mast cell-histamine molecule is released)/all body cell-causing vasodilatation (resulting increased local perfusion) & increased permeability of BV (resulting edema)-i.e. allergic reaction (in which depletion of vascular fluid occur-resulting lowering of BP); histamine also help immune cell to detect site of infection]

cAMP/cGMP [located within CM; come from ATP; a form of AMP that activate enzymes (e.g. phosphorylase) in many hormone-induced biochemical reaction; AMP is nucleotide involved in energy transfer reactions in living cell], diacylglycerol, inositol phosphate-that ensure NT production cause release of hormone from source cell;

Sildenafil block PDE5 (i.e. phosphodiesterase type 5 that is seen in vascular smooth muscle cell & that degrade ‘blood flow increasing-molecule=cGMP’); When motor nerve signal release ‘NT=nitric oxide’-via synapse inside vascular smooth muscle cell, cGMP is made-that raise blood flow [that cause penile erection etc].

Hormone may be poured/delivered inside target cell=e.g. from hypothalamus (that control endocrine system) to pituitary (where hormone conc. Is several hundred time higher than circulation) or may remain in circulation-with/without protein carrier/reservoir/pool site & in very low conc.=until reaching target cell-inside where series of molecules/2nd messengers are activated; water-soluble hormone has receptor on ‘CM’ of target cell; fat-soluble hormone has receptor on ‘Cytoplasm’ of target cell; Most used receptor is broken down (i.e. produced by target cell normally & during up-regulation=i.e. response of target cell by low hormone conc. In circulation)/few is recycled.

Hormone may be peptide (i.e. biologically active form in circulation/inside target cell-but produced in source cell as large protein; e.g. hormone secreted from anterior pituitary/thyroid/ parathyroid/placenta/pancreas) or may be steroid (i.e. sterol based; e.g. hormone secreted from adrenal gland/gonad-i.e. ovary/testis)

Hormone may be secreted from endocrine gland/mucous membrane (e.g. from duodenum to release digestive enzyme/bile from pancreas/bowel/liver etc)/placenta (an organ formed during pregnancy to regulate fetal development)

In animal (including invertebrate), it ensure ecdysis/molting/metamorphosis, flight, color change etc;

In plant, it ensure germination [gibberellin], seed/bud dormancy + tuber/bulb formation & leaf/fruit fall=abscission [abscisic acid-a growth inhibitor], cell division [cytokinin], flowering [salicylate], fruit ripening [ethylene/ethene, C2H4, colorless flammable gas], growth & development/extension [auxin-e.g. indoleacetic acid, IAA], death etc;

In human, it affect all cell [including BP regulation; e.g. during stress-adrenaline prepare body for physical exertion=via increasing heart rate/raising BP/releasing sugar stored in liver for quick energy; somatostatin block release of insulin/glucagon/growth hormone while gastric inhibitory polypeptide-GIP enhance insulin release during glucose absorption; insulin/glucagon regulate energy for muscle; GH/somatotropin favor bone formation (via secreting hepatic hormone ‘somatomedin’) & AA uptake in all cell]

Adrenal hormone counteract histamine hormone by dilating airway/raising BP/quieting stomach & bowel. [hence inj. Hydrocortisone is used as treatment for anaphylaxis/widespread ‘immediate’ allergic response]

Tumor=uncontrolled growth of body’s cell-showing no physiological function; cancer/malignancy of CT component called ‘sarcoma’.

3 Gonado-trophins=FSH (ensure sperm & ovarian follicle formation-from where estradiol is secreted),

LH (ensure testosterone & ‘corpus luteum’-i.e. yellow mass of tissue from where progesterone is secreted, seen inside ‘Graafian follicle’ in mammalian ovary after ovulation)-come from pituitary,

Chorionic GND-come from placenta (that ensure perfect environment inside uterus for fetus);

Estrogen (secreted from Graafian/mature follicle in ovary=called ‘ovulation’-occurred 14 to 15 day before next period, also secreted from ‘placenta’ during pregnancy) thicken endometrium (that happened after menstruation/period-i.e. in 1st part of menstrual cycle), ensure development of female gonad & female physical form, bring breast change during pregnancy

Progesterone (in mid-cycle=one Graafian/mature follicle release a mature ovum & resultant empty follicle convert into corpus luteum; If fertilization does not occur-corpus luteum dies & hormone levels fall=without hormonal support-uterine lining disintegrates & discharges= beginning a new menstrual period & cycle)-release from granulosa cell of corpus luteum; has same structure (i.e. steroid nucleus) with estrogen/androgen/cholesterol/adrenal steroid hormone; prepare uterine lining-for ‘ovum reception’, form sac inside breast tissue-needed before milk secretion & inhibit PRL secretion from pituitary.

Testosterone ensure development of Wolffian duct system-forerunner of male genital tract-but Müllerian duct system-forerunner of female genital tract develop without hormonal influence.

Testosterone/Androsterone [testis + sterol + ketone & finally excreted via urine; a LH dependent 2 of 3 male hormone—released from Leydig cell of testis & adrenal gland of both sex-from puberty]=express male physical form-e.g. maturation of genital organs-including testis & sperm/change in larynx & deep voice/hair growth in face, axilla, pubis/help in male type bone growth & muscle development; used to treat certain breast cancer in woman.[testicular failure after puberty=cause gradual recession of beard/voice change/fat deposition/muscle weakness/infertility or low libido or impotency; androgen excess cause accentuation of male secondary sex feature in both male & female & rarely-testicular /ovarian tumor]

Thyroxine/tetraiodothyronine [main hormone of thyroid gland-that combine iodine with AA ‘tyrosine’-found inside glycoprotein molecule named ‘thyroglobulin’ & also secreted in blood as ‘thyroxine-globulin’ complex]=control rate of metabolism (mainly of carbohydrate & protein).

Glucagon[secreted from pancreas]=in liver-break glycogen molecule to release glucose in blood.

Insulin[1st deciphered & synthesized human protein-via bacteria by GE in 1981]=ensure metabolism of carbohydrate & fat [its lack cause=kidney failure, blindness, stroke, IHD, other neuro-vascular disorder, death-due to effect ‘altered metabolic product’]

Mens. Cycle=has 1st & 2nd half-having ovulation in center.

Most organism do sex/union (a way of reproduction)-except virus [e.g. male/donor bacteria conjugate & pass single chromosome to female/recipient bacteria]; however most monoclinous/monoecious (i.e. having both pistil/carpel & stamen in a flower/plant respectively) flowering plant & invertebrate-hagfish/tunicate/sea bass/frog/toad/newt/sponge/cnidarian-sea anemone, coral, jellyfish/ some mollusk/earthworm are hermaphrodite [who carry both male & female gonad/sex gland but are rarely self-fertilized (e.g. violet & evening primrose; flatworm-tapeworm)-because they mature at different time; so they ensure cross-fertilization];

Meiosis create sex cell/gamete (having randomly reduced single/haploid/unpaired set of chromosome) while mitosis create body cell (i.e. other than sex cell, having double/diploid/paired set of chromosome-one set from each parent); Via sex-each individual born with slightly different genetic makeup-thus biodiversification is ensured; Lower plant (giving seedless fruit), arthropod-insect, amphibian, reptile, bird often switch to parthenogenesis (where unfertilized female sex cell convert into individual organism);

Many parent bacteria, protozoa, hydra & plant also multiply/reproduce (directly via mitosis) without union/sex=e.g. by budding (e.g. seen in invertebrate, yeast);

In higher animal, true hermaphrodite is absent-rather its intermediate form (called intersex/sex intergrade/pseudohermaphrodite) is seen due to genetic or hormonal imbalance (in pituitary/gonad/adrenal) & they are sterile; e.g. female with overdeveloped clitoris or male with underdeveloped penis/cleft scrotum/undescendant testes; recently such person undergo surgical/hormonal measure to emphasize external sex appearance.

Ovary (both in plant=where it convert into ‘fruit’ & animal)-In plant=it contain 1 (e.g. mango)/more (e.g. tomato) ovule [i.e. immature seed/spore (an asexual reproductive structure-seen in seedless plant/alga/fungus/some protozoa); analogue of ovarian follicle; secret ‘ethylene’ hormone-that convert ovary into fruit] bearing one egg/ovum/female sex cell (i.e. future embryo plant-if fertilized).

Embryo [in animal=conception upto 8 wk of development]>Fetus [i.e. unborn vertebrate animal having 8 wk & onward; in latter part of second month-external genitalia appear & head become larger than trunk/limb; in 4 wk-placenta develop; in 12 wk-internal/placental/umbilical (not ‘external’) respiration start; placental permeability increase as pregnancy advance; placenta-a vascular organ that contain umbilical vein & connect fetal umbilical cord with maternal uterine vasculature]

Adolescence/Teenage [=period from puberty (girl=11 to 14; boy=13 to 16) upto adulthood]=during which gonad & body change (to make enable for sexual reproduction) into mature/adult form (evident by onset of menstruation/ejaculation); at onset of puberty=pituitary-mediated increased hormone (e.g. GH)-induced accelerated development of sweat & oil/sebum gland in both sex trigger acne vulgaris [sebum oil mixed with dust/dirt (making blackhead) accumulate around follicle of oil gland & its opening closed sequentially; however, severe acne in adult indicate endocrine disorder; acne is seen in face/neck/shoulder/back & leave pitted scar; D/D=rosacea-red patch in cheek/nose/forehead, chloracne-acne like skin eruption caused by chlorinated compound]

Lacked knowledge in birth-control method or symptom of STD result illegitimate birth & increased incidence of STD.

Learning/education-based intellectual/mental/emotional maturity/development is ultimate one than physical/sexual maturity/development [in pubescence-rapid/extensive physiological change occur=e.g. by 2 yrs. while intelligence develop throughout life via psychosocial process=providing humane/moral & well-socialized manner].

Adequate supply of food/nutrient (>hormone in body) ensure growth [i.e. increase in size (upto 15 yr.) & maturation/fully functioning system; in last half of gestation-fetus grow from 45 gm to 3.5 kg-via extensive help of insulin & thyroxine hormone; fetal growth retard in alcoholic/smoker pregnant; upto 25 yr.-bone system grow & harden; however, liver/bone capable of growth-if injured & blood-forming element multiply throughout life]

Newborn baby see [least developed at birth but improve rapidly in 1st month]/hear/taste/smell/feel pain; cry to inform need for food/comfort/stimulation; has reflex for sucking/swallowing/ grasping/turning head in search of mother’s nipple

Infant=birth to around 2 yr. [form emotional attachment & trust to caregiver provided ‘warm & responsive care’ is given to infant; dramatic growth occur than other time of life-e.g. 10 stage of motor development]

Toddler=between 1 yr. to 3 yr. [by end of infancy-it start walk/run/talk in simple sentence]

[As young children develop sense of self-they come into conflict with parents, so way parents handle conflict influence-quality of relationship with children; people change throughout live-yet childhood (i.e. from birth to adolescence) developmental (i.e. intellectual/social/emotional/physical ability) change dramatic & lasting; whether outgoing/shy, intellectually advanced/ average, energetic/subdued depend on many factor-nutrition/medical care/environmental hazard in air/water, heredity/parent, family member, peer group, school environment, community & its cultural value, economic & political institution, media, self-cognition]

Elementary school [for 4 yr. to 6 yr.] >Junior school [for 7 yr. to 11 yr.=i.e. grade/class 1-5] >Junior high/Middle school [for preteen (12 yr. to 14 yr.)=i.e. grade/class 6-9]>High school [grade/class 10-12]

U.S. psychologist David Wechsler [1896-1981] design IQ/Intelligence test=‘Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised’ & ‘Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children’ that evaluate many ability (e.g. verbal, performance etc).

Tissue=Epithelial tissue [has 12 kind]=mainly protect underlying structure from injury & infection; also secret mucus (secreted from ‘goblet’ cell, made by complex protein ‘mucin’ + water=that coat & protect underlying mucous membrane) and absorb nutrient; seen in skin, outer surface & hollow part’s lining of an organ-like stomach/intestine/lung/BV/vagina/esophagus etc; inward growth of epithelium make gland-e.g. sweat gland in skin/gastric gland in stomach/endocrine gland etc; outward growth of epithelium make hair/nail/other appendage etc.

Connective tissue [has fibrous-formed by ‘collagen’ protein that is secreted from ‘fibroblast’=e.g. tendon that connect muscle & bone/elastic-found in ligament, trachea, arterial wall and having elasticity/adipose-special fibroblast that support vital organ & store excess food as ‘fat’ for use when needed/bone-14% of BW & formed by ‘collagen’ protein secreted from osteoblast (that also secret CaPO4)/cartilage-flexible/elastic type tissue formed by ‘chondrion’ protein that is secreted from ‘chondroblast-a special type of fibroblast’/blood & lymph type tissue]=support, shape & connect body parts together-as, unlike epithelium, these cell are not tightly interconnected-rather connected by network of fiber/strand that support organ/BV/nerve etc; in consistency-CT may be solid/fluid/gel; made of cell & (intercellular) matrix/substance/stroma (that is mainly ‘protein-made fiber’=making space/nest for CT cells).

[Ca & P salt begin to deposit around cartilage from 8th wk. of gestation but even at full term (40th wk of gestation) fetal bones still consist primarily of cartilage-esp. entire skull remain as cartilage plates & in between membranous fontanelles (however-by 1 yr. of age=growth of skull become completed); By end of childhood, osteoblast make 300 infant bones fuse & 206 mature bony forms; when Ca level fall in blood-osteoclast remain hyperactive=releasing Ca from broken bone into blood; in person with increase muscle mass-osteoblast remain hyperactive to make new bone formation=so that increased muscle pull cannot break bone; exercise & proper diet/nutrient (e.g. Ca/P/vit. D/GH/PTH/calcitonin/sex hormones) ensure healthy bone growth at all stages of life; after 1 wk. of #, cell from periosteum enter injured area to make fibrous network=onto which incoming chondroblast make cartilage & then incoming osteoblast convert cartilage to bone=by wk./month-depending on health condition].

Bone (support & shape body, protect internal organ, give surface for muscle attachment-ensuring complex movement, store Ca=that mitigate normal action of muscle & nerve cell, also store ‘bone marrow’=site for making RBC/Platelet/certain WBC-esp. from BM of flat bone=rib/pelvis/breastbone in adult)=compact [e.g. seen in shaft of arm & leg bone; structural unit is ‘osteon’-pillar/cylinder like form with central hollow tunnel-for carrying BV, nerve etc; suitable for weight/stress bearing] & spongy/cancellous [e.g. located internal to compact bone-seen in pelvis, rib, breastbone, vertebrae, skull, ends of arm & leg bone; form ‘trabeculae’-honeycomb network=acting as supporting beam for weight/stress bearing from all side; space in trabeculae contain RBM & BV-to nourish spongy bone].

Bone marrow (fluid/gel type CT; has red & yellow type)=red type made by hematopoietic stem cell (remain as 1 per other 10,000 bone marrow cell)/developing blood cell & (intercellular) protein fiber; red marrow remain in all bone at birth-serving blood cell making site; as infant mature=within shaft of long (e.g. in arm, leg) bone-red marrow is replaced by yellow marrow (that is made by specialized adipose cell & intercellular ‘protein-made fiber’; in emergency=when the body needs more blood (e.g. during blood loss/hypoxia-i.e. reduced oxygen conc. to tissue=promoting secretion of ‘erythropoietin’ hormone from kidney-for more RBC production & ‘colony stimulating growth factor’ hormone from immune system-for more WBC production)-yellow marrow is replaced by blood-forming red marrow); those stem cell make 45% part (i.e. blood cells) of blood volume.

[leukemia/blood cancer=malignancy of hematopoietic stem cell or subsequent developing blood cell; acute type involve early member while chronic type involve later member of blood cell production lineage]

[Transplant of RBM’s stem cell=source-bloodstream from UC/placenta of newborn infant/CSGF hormone (that induce ‘WBC related stem cell’ to come into bloodstream) treated blood stream; indication-blood/RBM’ stem cell related disease & after completed cycle of RT in malignancy case; incase of ‘under same species-e.g. human to human’=blood cell producing genes are matched-before RBM’s stem cell is transplanted; complication of ‘allograft related rejection’=veno-occlusive disease of liver/kidney by uric acid released from high rate of dying cell]

Animal’s disease resisting system (i.e. immunity)-2 type (develop from 9 wk. after conception from stem cell)[consist of molecule-e.g. antibody/MHC molecule (coded in many ‘HLA gene’)/cytokine (i.e. 50 ILs=signaling molecule)/CD molecule (a GP) etc, immune cell-mainly WBC (i.e. macrophage & lymphocyte) & organ-e.g. RBM/thymus (where immature T cell mature until puberty-after which it shrink)/spleen/lymph node (where immature B cell mature) etc]

Non-specific/innate (1st line of immunity)=barrier such as skin/tear/mucus/saliva/rapid inflammation around tissue-occurred by hour after injury/infection; it prevent entry & spread of invader (although may not often do it-e.g. in sepsis); dendritic cell [act as ‘APC’ & tag ‘MHC class 2 molecule’ with ingested antigen] ingest invader & render inflammation [that cell also then present antigen to helper T-so that helper T cell can divide & release many kind of ‘interleukin’ molecule-which in turn cause (killer T cell/CD8 T cell to kill invader, stimulate macrophage action & also) B cell to divide & release (cytokine-dependent 5 kind of) ‘antibody-i.e. antigen receptor’; Ig M antibody is made first in all event while after several days, released kind of ‘IL’ molecule dictate release of such kind of antibody; all kind of Ig can bind & neutralize antigen directly-thus interfering its action=e.g. antibody bound-tetanus toxin cannot bind to nerve cell receptor-thus ‘toxin mediated muscle control’ is prevented; Also, antibody bound-antigen on invader surface become more prone to be ingested by WBC (‘opsonization’ process)-as WBC’s CM has receptor for ‘base part’ of antibody; Ig M & Ig G trigger liver-made ‘complement’ system-that cut hole on CM of invader=e.g. on slimy coat of pneumonia bacteria-which made difficult for macrophage to ingest; Ig M & Ig G work best in bloodstream while Ig A work best in mother’s milk & mucosal surface-e.g. intestine/lung across which most invader entry].

5 Antibodies can react to same antigen but elicit different immune response.

Specific/adaptive [antigen-specific; final line of immunity; 2 type-humoral & cell mediated; become active by day to week after 1st exposure of a antigen & it is uncertain how long full protection (by rendering both antigen-specific antibody & T cell) will last-which is ensured by booster dose of vaccine-e.g. MMR vaccine given in pre-school child-although measles vaccine given by 2 yr. of age; in person with damaged immune system-active (not passive) vaccine (having attenuated virus or killed bacteria or ‘subunit part’ of invader-made by GE using invader’s responsible gene) is considered useless-as given antigen cannot provoke/stimulate damaged immune system]=begin when invader pass barrier; it display memory (a process stored in long-lived cell but never transmitted to next generation)-with which it respond better after its 1st exposure to an invader-even years later.

Humoral response [i.e. antibody-that circulate in blood & other body fluid] target [& then destroy] antigen of bacteria/toxin/virus/fungus-before their entry into body cell [however antigen inside body cell/APC is also bound & docked to CM by certain transport molecule-called MHC molecule (so that T cell can target these infected body cell; 2 type=‘class 1’ MHC molecule (seen in CM of most nucleated body cell) for killer T cell & ‘class 2’ MHC molecule (seen in CM of APC-i.e. all infected/defective body cell) for helper T cell), as these molecule are coded by several group of MHC genes] while Cell mediated response target either infected body’s cell [termed now as ‘antigen presenting cell/APC’] or defective body’s cell-e.g. cancer cell [that make mutated/changed form of normal molecule] or antigen carrying invader.

Both B & T cell born as ‘stem cell’ in RBM and B cell mature in LN/spleen and T cell (both cytotoxic/killer & helper) mature in thymus; mature B & T cell’s travel: blood>lymphoid patch (like LN/spleen/tonsil/patch in lung, intestine etc)>back to blood=so that monitoring become complete; Most contact between antigen and lymphocytes occur in lymphoid patch.Tumor cell/pathogen-infected body cell=killed by NK cell (by either apoptosis or direct cytotoxicity; thus also prevent metastasis of tumor cell) & killer T cell [via released ‘cytotoxin/enzyme’ after attachment]; Outside a cell-pathogen=killed by neutrophil/eosinophil (kill antibody-coated worm)/macrophage/B cell/killer T cell [after interaction between APC & helper T cell-that call upon these soldiers].

Cytokine-namely ‘IL-1 & TNF-alpha’ (that induce both acute & chronic inflammation-via activating arachidonic acid inflammatory cascade-i.e. ‘COX=PG E2/TX’ & ‘LOX=LT B4’ path-as these ‘pro-inflammatory lipids’ are oxidized unregulatively=‘FR’ are released causing inflammation)=protein secreted from immune cell in response to pathogen’s antigen (that is chemically LPS/endotoxin or peptidoglycan); decreased level of ‘PL-e.g. phosphatidyl choline’ & cholesterol in body provoke inflammation-i.e. they act as ‘anti-oxidant’/’anti-inflammatory’.

Not all plasma cell secret antibody molecule, but also revert to resting state & represent 'memory' of occurrence, ready to respond if epitope [i.e. binding site in a molecule] reappear.

[Mab or Monoclonal antibody/molecule or immuno conjugate or immunoglobulin (another name for antibody)=Laboratory-made ‘Y-shaped’ glycoprotein that attach its specific antigen-i.e. a protein molecule; often, radionuclide/toxic/drug molecule is tagged with it-to augment its action against its specific antigen or this antigen carrying cell; used to diagnose & treat various disorder (including poisoning by protein-based antigen molecule) or physiological event-like diagnosis of pregnancy etc; it also break down unwanted molecule-e.g. cocaine molecule; it prevent action of ‘tumor cell-produced angiogenic molecule’; it is produced (inside bacteria, B cell etc) by cell-cell fusion/chemically joining 2 or more protein/genetically linking or rearranging (called ‘recombinant’) related gene; it may be single set/mono specific-i.e. containing 1 binding site or may be double set/bi specific-i.e. containing 1 binding site for attaching on tumor cell & 1 binding site for ‘tumor cell killing cell/molecule’; it also prevent transplant rejection-by binding antigen on T cell surface-the main cell doing rejection]

APC uptake antigen internally, cut it in right sized ‘peptide (i.e. small piece of protein)’, tag it with MHC class 2 molecule & then dock it toward its CM for displaying to helper T cell (also called CD4 T cell) for releasing ‘IL’; until puberty-in thymus, APC teach helper T cell to identify body’s cell-via displaying each GP of body cell’s CM; however, T cell education continues in bloodstream throughout a person's life by APC; in autoimmune disorder-early genetic mutation related to function of APC occur-thus, T cell-mediated autoimmune attack on body’s cell occur; At same time-B cell also make ‘autoantibody’ that target body’s cell (in contrast, regular antibody only attack invader agent).

Immunosuppressive drug-e.g. prednisone, cyclosporine lower T cell production>thus fight against infectious agent is hampered & invaders get upperhand [all immune cell are also targeted by RT/stress/poor nutrition/HIV/hereditary or genetic disease-SCID (severe combined immune deficiency) etc; In DiGeorge syndrome/Thymic aplasia=T cell lack maturation/education during infancy; In other inherited/genetic disorder-action of macrophage may be defected-making body prone to ‘opportunistic’ agent=i.e. which are weak agent in potent immune system].

In autoimmunity/CID (i.e. chronic inflammatory disease)=joint (RA)/insulin-secreting cell of pancreas (IDM)/skin (psoriasis & vitiligo)/nervous system (MS & myasthenia gravis)/thyroid (Graves' disease)/gut (Crohn's disease)/multiorgan-like skin, joint, lung, kidney, heart, gut (lupus, scleroderma & Sjögren's syndrome) may be affected.

3 Possible causes of autoimmunity [however, pathogen (mostly by spirochete bacterium)-induced immune suppression is regarded as the only culprit & usually begin with ‘periodontal’ infection]=1. Removal of suppressive gene in both T & B cell, after a viral attack inside them-e.g. IM;2. Similarity between self body marker & pathogen’s antigen, thus immunity may attack body cell-e.g. RF;3. Accidental exposure of previously (i.e. during formation of immune system) made unrecognized body marker to immune system, thus immunity then attack body component

‘The administrator=Helper T cell’ (which is killed by HIV) regulate all immune response-so, its absence make body prone to all invader.

After winning a battle-Suppressor T (the peacemaker) releases substances that turn off B cells, order killer cells to stop the fight, command helper T to cease.

Transplanted/Donor tissue rejection prevention=matching of MHC gene between donor & taker body>removing mature T cell from donor tissue (to prevent GVH reaction)>immune-suppressive drug giving to recipient.

Allergy/Hypersensitivity (where immune system mistakenly target harmless antigen as harmful & provoke allergy antibody ‘IgE’ production from plasma cell; cause chronic allergic asthma, local or whole body reaction)=8 main food allergen in US are crustacean shellfish/egg/fish/milk/peanut/soybean/tree nut/wheat; treatment-minimizing/removing allergen from patient’s environment (e.g. removing cat/closing window & put on AC for pollen grain/cleaning with safe chemical for ‘house dust mite’), series of desensitizing injection containing allergen extract (called ‘allergen immunotherapy’-to neutralize allergic antibody-IgE, so that allergen is no longer bind to it & thus histamine is not released-in response to next allergen exposure)-a skin test taking gradually increasing amount of allergen each week for many week until high dose of allergen is reached- to reduce/eliminate allergic symptom (effective against pollinosis/hay fever-induced rhinitis-conjunctivitis-asthma, stinging insect etc); stress also aggravate allergic response/reaction/symptom (i.e. histamine induced itching & sneezing, in intestine-cramp/diarrhea that is further triggered by immune response>D/D-food intolerance that is caused by particular enzyme lack, in skin-eczema/dermatitis, all over body-allergic/anaphylactic shock/histamine shock-e.g. seen by bee sting venom); Several yet unknown gene may be involved in this reaction; in infancy, allergy is commonly related to food & viral respiratory infection.

Allergen-induced activated ‘allergy antibody-IgE’ cause release of histamine (that dilate BV & promote fluid secretion/leaking-including gastric juice/stimulate nerve to cause involuntary muscle spasm e.g. of GIT, airway, genital tract=all result allergic symptom) from all cell (including basophil & mast cell, later cell also release heparin) of animal.

Person with family history of hay fever may react to any exposed non-specific allergen.

Stress/cortisol inhibit macrophage action while jog/exercise raise IL-1 & INF level (that boost up macrophage & T cell) and also release ‘natural painkiller & wellbeing inducer (i.e. endorphin & enkephalin)’ from brain.

Allergic reaction (rapid type-provoking IgE antibody production and seen by bee venom/pollen/pet; delayed type-T cell mediated ‘granulomatous’ inflammation formation-as macrophage cannot destroy these allergen-e.g. tuberculosis, salmonella (intracellular bacteria-like virus; both are attacked by killer T cell)/poison ivy or oak; later type inflammation may damage lung/liver etc).

Venom (poison of animal)=chemically 2 types-hemorrhage causing & nerve system blocking (e.g. of cobra & coral snake/arachnid); use-used as painkiller in arthritis/cancer, as coagulant for people with hemophilia.

Toxin [poison of plant/bacteria-including of animal-i.e. venom; mostly protein-made colloid & ‘enzyme’ in nature; may actively secreted (called ‘true toxin’) during multiplication or released after decay/disintegration of organism]=toxoid are made from toxin-after removing ‘toxicity’ property from toxin (& then injected into body to allow ‘antibody/antitoxin’ production against that toxin); effect ranging from skin irritation to hallucination, bone marrow destruction, paralysis, vomiting, heart failure etc.

Poison [solid/liquid/gas molecule in form of mineral/vegetable/animal that interrupt physiology-when combined with animal cell]=caused by common drug (by over dosage-via acute/chronic use or interaction with other drug including alcohol) or household product-like insecticide, cosmetic; treatment in most case-immediate use of antidote (it may neutralize-e.g. bicarbonate for acid poison/coat stomach-e.g. olive oil for ammonia poison/absorb-e.g. charcoal for alkaloid/make insoluble-e.g. Epsom salt for lead/make opposite physiological effect ), dilution by water/milk, emesis (C/I-corrosive poison, emetic may stimulate gastric nerve or vomiting center of brain).

Blood poisoning/Toxemia is caused by microbial toxin (which is called septicemia/sepsis), chemical gas/liquid-e.g. nerve or systemic or narcotic gas/asphyxiant/corrosive-e.g. strong acid & alkali-causing ‘tissue burn’/irritant-causing ‘inflammation’.

[Toxemia also indicate high BP & kidney malfunction-releasing protein via urine-seen in late pregnancy].

Biological warfare agents include live (& hence reproducible) bacteria, viruses, fungi etc (& their toxin) that can kill/incapacitate.

Chemical warfare agents (termed as ‘Weapon of Mass Destruction’; dispersed in air) include nerve gas (insecticide OPCs that impair production of enzyme ‘acetyl cholinesterase’-causing NT acetylcholine to carry its work persistently-e.g. convulsion, excess secretion , choking etc) & choking agent (poisonous molecule that prevent respiration-by local action).

Shock (acute circulatory insufficiency-i.e. it is insufficiency of heart/BVs/blood)=first aid is lying down/warming (but not overheating)/stop any bleeding/artificial respiration (if not breathing)/may administer oxygen, sedative drug, take measure to lower body temperature if it is very high/IV glucose or salt solution or transfusion of plasma or whole blood if shock is due to blood loss; treatment is monitored by direct measurement of arterial blood pressure & arterial blood gases, often BP is increased by vasopressors (drugs that constrict BVs).

Feature-weakness/apathy, unpleasantly cold & humid/damp skin, low BP (hence feeble pulse) & shallow breathing, rapid heartbeat/tachycardia; in early stage-consciousness is retained, but alertness is diminished; In less severe shock- compensatory constriction of BVs help restore circulation, but if shock persist-resulting local anemia damage vital organ-like brain (fainting etc)/heart/liver/lung.

Common Settings of shock-heart failure/injury/burn/hemorrhage/major surgery/sudden infection/poisoning/abnormal extracellular fluid volume resulting from excessive loss of water & electrolytes (ionic conductors) from GIT/kidney/skin.

Septicemia/Sepsis (common in immune-deficient person & if untreated-result septic shock/sepsis syndrome-that are featured by drop in BP & multi organ damage-like heart/liver/lung/kidney/skin/intestine/stomach/brain etc)=featured by chill/high fever/tachycardia (rapid heart rate)/tachypnea (rapid breathing)/high white-blood-cell count (all these feature are due to immune response against microbial toxin).

[each ‘B cell’ can create ‘only 1 kind of antigen specific’-i.e. each specific kind of antigen-entered into body activate corresponding each line of B cell to create such specific monoclonal antibody (that is found only in vertebrate animal & main defense against infection) within 2 wk.=after exposing to new antigen for 1st time; after producing from related stem cell in RBM-B cell go to spleen/lymph node where its mature form respond to antigen>B cell turn into plasma cell (that never enter blood stream) to make related ‘Y-shaped’ antibody>released into blood stream to catch up antigen ‘instantly’; IgM is first made Ab in human & also first one made in infection. IgG is made at second exposure of antigen. IgE (made against allergen & parasite) is found in saliva & mother's milk; Ab destroy Ag directly or by inviting T cell or with complement system; Ab remain in blood for a period of time-so it (unlike processed antigen) confer short-term immunity to person-recently exposed to relevant antigen.

[‘Gamma globulin’ from plasma (i.e. fluid part of blood/lymph) =mixture of protein-include Ab/immuno globulin & other globulin (a simple 30 protein that are made in liver) used as complement system for Ab action against antigen-via binding with Ab; gamma globulin deficiency refer to both Ab & complement system and demand periodic infusion of gamma globulin to maintain protection]

[Plasma-made mainly by water, also contain element as ion (i.e. electrolyte), sugar (mainly glucose), AA, fat, hormone, enzyme, vitamin, dissolved gas molecule, waste molecule (e.g. urea), protein (e.g. gamma globulin, fibrinogen, protein for carrying Fe/Cu etc); deliver nutrient to trillion cell, pick up waste molecule from them & carry RBC/WBC/platelet throughout body]

[Serum-contain all molecule of plasma except it lack fibrinogen & other clotting agent (i.e. unlike plasma, serum never clot); recipient’s antibody react with antibody (i.e. taking it as antigen) in injected animal’s serum result rash/fever/swelling (called ‘serum sickness’) ]

Activated 30 complement proteins found in all body fluid (refer to ‘pathogen lytic activity’ of fresh body fluid; severe fever destroy these protein & thus prevent their ‘pathogen lytic activity’) kill pathogen by either opsonization (via c3b) or induce inflammation (via c3a; i.e. they activate innate-immunity based immune cell-like neutrophil/monocyte & act as ‘chemotaxis’-attracting phagocyte at injured site) or form ‘MAC-membrane attack complex’ (via c5b; a protein channel that attached on pathogen’s CM & cause water influx to burst that out).

Phagocyte’s CM has receptor for both ‘complement protein’ & ‘antibody’ (thus ‘opsonization’ occurs with phagocyte).

7 anti-inflammatory foods-1. Turmeric, 2. wild salmon fish, 3. broccoli, 4. blueberries, 5. green tea, 6. kelp (i.e. brown seaweed), 7. shiitake mushroom/oak-tree mushroom (dark-colored mushroom).

Human Joint/Articulation=meeting point of 2 or more bone/cartilage [like synapse=meeting point of 2 or more neuron]; functions=allow growth (e.g. suture joint in skull)/movement in one direction (e.g. elbow, knee & finger/toe joint=hinge action)/limited movement (e.g. wrist & ankle joint=sliding/gliding over one another flat surface)/rotating in full circle (e.g. shoulder & hip joint-forming ‘ball & socketing’); in movable joint=membrane bound sac/bursa produce synovial fluid.

Cartilage (found in only vertebrate animal)=collagen (a tough protein)-made gelatinous matrix/stroma that is less stiff/fibrous/tough but more flexible/rubbery/elastic=produced by chondroblast/chondrocyte and covered by membrane called ‘perichondrium’; support skeleton-by remaining at specific point; seen in nose tip/outer part of ear/ends of bones/fetal skeleton (that is later replaced by bone)/breastbone/trachea/larynx/joint etc; shark skeleton is fully cartilaginous.

Ligament (formed as extension from fibrous/tough CT of bone/cartilage or covering membrane of organ)=collagen (a tough protein)-made band that is more stiff/fibrous/tough & less flexible/rubbery/elastic; hold together (i.e. stabilize) & allow movement of bone/cartilage inside/around joint; also support all abdominal organ (e.g. liver, kidney, spleen, bladder, uterus, diaphragm); maintain shape of breast.

[Tendon=inelastic/tough CT but unlike ligament-it origin from muscle=attaching it to bone/other part]

Lymph/Tissue fluid (aka, plasma at capillary level & that bath body’s cell)=fluid type CT that carry mainly activated T & B lymphocyte (+ also tissue break down product-e.g. protein molecule, malignant cell) & carry plasma; in small intestine-absorbed ‘emulsified fat’ mix into lymph=termed ‘chyle’; other body fluid-e.g. synovial fluid inside joint/endolymph inside semi-circular canal of air/serous fluid (i.e. resembling serum) in pleural cavity/CSF in CNS etc are identical to lymph; after crossing several lymph node (that produce WBC)-lymph drain into bloodstream; spleen has same tissue structure as lymph node.

Muscle tissue [35% of one’s BW; show movement of bone/cartilage or internal organ-when nerve signal come]=

Each skeletal myofiber-[activated by somatic NS]Alternately arranged & cross-bridged thick (made by myosin protein) & thin (made by actin protein) myofilament>make myofibril (surrounded by several nuclei, motor neuron & densely packed mitochondria-to give energy during contraction)>make each muscle cell/fiber (surrounded by CT sheath-called ‘sarcolemma’); many myofiber packed to form ‘bundle’; got attached to bone/cartilage via CT-‘tendon’; slowly contracting/relaxing muscle is energy conserving technique-as seen in ‘rhinoceros beetle’ [who has also stiff exoskeleton]-who can carry 30 time its BW. [in fact, slow-twitch/type 1 myofiber use less energy but fast-twitch/type 2 use more energy]

Each smooth myocyte-[activated by autonomic NS]Spindle-shaped cell with a nucleus & contract in rhythmic wave to provide tension in the GIT, urinary bladder, blood vessel, uterus, other internal organ etc.

Each cardiac myocyte-[activated by autonomic NS]Seen in all vertebrate heart; drive blood through circulatory system but die soon-if constant supply of oxygen/blood is cut to it [as seen in IHD/heart attack].

In response to electrical changes at cell's surface-Ca ion from ‘sarcoplasm’ act on ‘myofilaments’ causing contraction; upon proper exercise-size of myofiber/myocyte is increased [& also develop quick/reflex contraction] otherwise diminished [as seen in paralysis]

Nerve cell=also called ‘neuron’; seen only in animal (not in plant); 3 part in each nerve cell=many dendrite (that receive stimuli from other nerve cell/sensory organ-via synapse) + a body (that make & release NT-a molecule that represent electrical signal) + a long fiber/axon (surrounded by ‘myelin’ & transmit nerve signal from nerve cell body to other cell-like another nerve cell/gland/muscle-via synapse); also store data-like T & B memory immune cell; it sense change inside & outside body; it control thinking/feeling/muscle/gland.

PNS in vertebrate show 3 nerve cell (forming a communication network with CNS & among themselves)-1.Sensory nerve cell-collect signal from sensory receptor structure/organ-via synapse & forward to CNS,2.Motor nerve cell-carry electrical signal to skeletal muscle cell from CNS,3.Autonomic nerve cell-regulate function of circulatory system/organ/gland/smooth muscle (that seen in intestine etc); 2 subtype=sympathetic & parasympathetic nerve cell.

Embryonic nervous system is highly receptive-even to grafted organ from other species.

Synthetic purified NGF [i.e. ‘nerve growth factor’-a protein made by sensory target organ=likevenom gland of snake/salivary gland of rodent/normal cell/cancer cell] and NGF antibodyincrease number of sympathetic/sensory nerve cell [under influence of NGF, these cell madefrom immature chromaffin cell seen in adrenal medulla] & eliminate them respectively [both inCNS & peripheral ganglia]; NGF cause outgrowth of sympathetic/sensory nerve cell by initiatingpolymerization of tubulin [that make microtubule] & actin [that make microfilament] towardmeeting its target organ.

Glial cell-support & nourish nerve cell; Fibroblast-embryonic CT cell.

Drug vinblastine [an alkaloid that found in periwinkle plant]-block axonal transport of NGF (from innervated cell to cell body via axon); 6-hydroxydopamine-destroy nerve ending.

Nerve signal (along CM)=move via electrical way in a nerve cell & via chemical NT (inside synapse) between nerve cells or between nerve cell & non-neuronal cell.

Myelinated axon (that maintain nerve impulse over long distance) is seen in sensory nerve cell & nerve cell connected to skeletal muscle (which is felt as sharp sensation) while in non-myelinated nerve cell=nerve impulse is moved diffusely (which is felt as dull sensation).

Large channel for Na+ influx [i.e. diffusion] bring excitatory synaptic response while small channel for K+ efflux [i.e. diffusion] or Cl- influx [i.e. diffusion] bring inhibitory synaptic response [During synaptic inhibition, CM of inhibitory nervous part keep -80 mv difference across their CM].