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TTAABBLLEE OOFF GGRRAAMMMMAATTIICCAALL DDEESSCCRRIIPPTTIIOONNSS (Larsen-Freeman amp Celce-Murcia 1999)
STRUCTURE
FORM
MEANING
1 Subject-and-Verb
Agreement
FORM Third Person
Standard grammatical treatments state that for
verbs other than be number agreement between the subject
and verb (sometimes referred to as subject-verb concord)
poses a problem only in the present tense where third
person singular forms are explicitly inflected while other
forms are not
NUMBER
Some Typical Errors
Given the complexity of the choice the beginning
ESLEFL learner tends to simplify and leave off altogether the
third person singular inflection
Warren live in Vigan Vince say he
Person
Singular
Plural
Ist I speak Filipino We speak Filipino
2nd
You speak Filipino
You speak Filipino
3rd Hesheit (the parrot) speaks Filipino
They speak Filipino
The General Rule
In the most straightforward cases the subject and verb
number choice will agree In the present tense we use the third
person singular inflection (-s or the be form) if the subject refers to
one entity whether it is a singular proper name a singular common
noun a non-count noun or a third person singular pronoun
Elsewheremdashfor nouns or pronouns referring to more than one entity
or for first or second person pronouns referring to one entitymdashno
inflection is used in the present tense
Third person singular No inflection on verb inflection on verb Alain walks to school The Reyeses walk to church
The bus stops here These books contain
good information
This mango tastes sweet IYou want guava
She wants guava WeYouThey want
guava
To this formulation we should add that if the predicate of the
sentence begins with an inflectable tense-bearing auxiliary verbs
such as be or have it is the auxiliary verb that indicates the third
person singular inflection (nont the main verb)
will come
Occasionally however some learners will
overgeneralize the inflection and apply it to uninflected
forms such as modal auxiliaries or to verbs following
modals
Lance cans dance disco or
Lance can dances disco
They also may overuse it as an agreement marker
with subjects of inappropriate person andor number
ITheyYou goes to Baguio
Yet another reason why some learners overuse this
form is that they interpret the ndashs ending as a plural marker on
the verb to be used in agreement with plural subjects
TheyThe boys goes to malls often
Agreement errors may be due to phonological or
perceptual factors rather than syntactic or morphological
differences ESL teachers should be aware of the fact that
some learners of English fully understand the third person
singular present ending and can even produce it
systematically when they write in English however they omit
it frequently when they are speaking One reason for this
according to Larsen-Freeman amp Celce-Murcia (1999) is
because the sound system of their native language tends not
to permit final s sounds in particular or final consonants in
general This supports the fact of similar error committed by
most Filipino ESL learners
Glenn is walking to school
This water has boiled for ten minutes
2 The Tense-Aspect System
The Formal Characteristics of the Tense-Aspect System
The Grammar Book clearly discussed tense-aspect
system should not be mistakenly understood to tense-
aspect combinations The book explains that tense simply
relates to time while aspect concerns with the internal
structure of the action occurring at any time Hence the
authors argued that the ―long-considered future tense is not
entirely a tense but an aspect as explained above In
addition future does not carry inflection for future time unlike
othersmdashthe simple past and simple present for either regular
or irregular verb In this sense what have long known as 12
―tenses was trim down only into two thus past tense and
present tense For the future aspect modals will and shall
are used They further explained that one of the reasons for
displaying the tense-aspect combinations (see the chart
below) is to demonstrate that the 12 ―tenses are simply
combinations of tense and aspect aspect Since the perfect
and progressive aspect markers contribute consistent
meaning regardless of tense in effect ESL students have to
learn only the form and meaning of the three tenses (in their
simple form) and the two aspects (perfect and progressive) to
develop an understanding of the tense-aspect system of
English
Meaning in the English Tense-Aspect System
Simple Aspect refers to events that are conceptualized as complete
wholes The events are not presented as allowing for further
development This aspect stands in contrast to progressive aspect
which is incomplete or imperfectivemdashwhere the event or state is
viewed as some portion of a whole and where there is room for
further development or change (Hirtle 1967) in Murcia (1999)
Examples Jeffrey and Erwin live in Bulacan (simple present tense)
Jeffrey and Erwin are living in Bulacan (present
progressive)
Simple Present Tenses conveys immediate factuality (Lewis 1986
in Murcia 1999)
Examples I skim the The Philippine Daily Inquirer at breakfast
The earth rotates around the sun
My mother loves orchids
It is a beautiful day
Simple Past Tense also states facts What the core meaning of the
past tense adds is a sense of remoteness (Knowles 1979 in Murcia
1999) The event can be remote in time1 and even if the event is a
recent one2
Examples 1 Princess Lara Quigaman won the Miss International
crown in 2006
2 I finished my term paper
Simple Future with will (or Contracted lsquoll) is used when the event
is conceptualized a s a whole One difference in its core meaning is
that events in the future time cannot be factually knowable in the
same way as those in the past or present can Therefore because
strictly speaking the future canrsquot be reported on factually will is said
to be used for strong predictions not factual reports
Examples We will cover the first half of the book this term
We will never know what cures tropical plants possess if
we donrsquot
become serious about preserving the forests in which
they grow
Perfect Aspect The core meaning of aspect is ―prior and it is used
in relation to some other points in time For instance present perfect
is used retrospectively to refer to a time prior to now
Examples Have you done your homework (present perfect)
He had left before I arrived (past perfect)
Mark will have finished all his chores by the time we get
there (future perfect)
Progressive Aspect is considered to be as being imperfective
meaning that it portrays an event in a way that allows it to be
incomplete somehow limited and always specific
a Present Progressive (sometimes called Present
Continuous)
Activity in progress He is attending a meeting now
Extended present Irsquom studying education at the
Philippine Normal University
A temporary situation Andrea is living with her parents
Repetition or iteration Marvin is kicking the soccer ball
around the backyard
Express future Maricel is coming tomorrow
Emotional comment on present habit Hersquos always
delivering in a clutch situation approving
Hersquos forever acting up at these affairs disapproving
A change in progress Des is becoming more and more
like her mother
b Past Progressive
An action in progress He was walking to school at 730
in the morning
Past action simultaneous with some other event that is
usually started in the simple past Katie was washing
her hair when the phone rang
Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action
Jober was coughing all night long
Social distancing I was hoping you could lend me
P1000
c Future Progressive
An action that will be in progress at a specific time in
the future Rocky will be taking a test at 800 AM
tomorrow
Duration of some specific future action Lovely will be
working on her thesis for the next three years
Perfect Progressive Aspect combines the sense of ―prior of the
perfect with the meaning of ―incompleteness inherent in the
progressive aspect
Example Elaine has been working hard on a special project
a Present Perfect Progressive
A situation or habit that began in the past (recent or
distant) and that continues up to the present (and
possibly into the future Ramiro has been going out
with Arlene
An action in programs that is not yet completed Lorna
has been reading that book
A state that changes over time The students have been
getting better and better
An evaluative comment on something observed over
time triggered by current evidence Yoursquove been
drinking again
b Past Perfect Progressive
An action or habit taking place over a period of time in
the past prior to some other past event or time Vester
had been working hard so his doctor told him to take a
vacation
A past action in progress that was interrupted by a more
recent past action Onin and Rowel had been planning
to vacation in El Nido but changed their minds after
receiving the brochure on Boracay
An ongoing past action or state that becomes satisfied
by some other event Rellie had been wanting to see
that play so he was pleased when he won the tickets
c Future Perfect Progressive
Durative or habitual action that is taking place in the
present and that will continue into the future up until or
through a specific future time On Christmas Eve we will
have been living in same house for 20 years
He will have been keeping a journal for 10 years next
month
3 Prepositions
PrepositionsTypes
A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a
sentence
Prepositions of Time at on and in
We use at to designate specific times
The train is due at 1215 pm
We use on to designate days and dates
My brother is coming on Monday
Were having a party on the Fourth of July
We use in for nonspecific times during a day a month a
season or a year
She likes to jog in the morning
Its too cold in winter to run outside
He started the job in 1971
Hes going to quit in August
Prepositions of Place at on and in
We use at for specific addresses
Daril lives at 350 Bgy Sapang Bata in Malolos
We use on to designate names of streets avenues etc
Her house is on Quezon Road
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns counties
states countries and continents)
She lives in Durham
Durham is in Windham County
Windham County is in Connecticut
Prepositions of Location in at and on
IN
(the) bed
the bedroom
the car
(the) class
the library
school
AT
class
home
the library
the office
school
work
ON
the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
You may sometimes use different
prepositions for these locations
Prepositions of Movement to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place
They were driving to work together
Shes going to the dentists office this morning
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express
movement These are simply variant spellings of the same
word use whichever sounds better to you
Were moving toward the light
This is a big step towards the projects completion
With the words home downtown uptown inside outside
downstairs upstairs we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
will come
Occasionally however some learners will
overgeneralize the inflection and apply it to uninflected
forms such as modal auxiliaries or to verbs following
modals
Lance cans dance disco or
Lance can dances disco
They also may overuse it as an agreement marker
with subjects of inappropriate person andor number
ITheyYou goes to Baguio
Yet another reason why some learners overuse this
form is that they interpret the ndashs ending as a plural marker on
the verb to be used in agreement with plural subjects
TheyThe boys goes to malls often
Agreement errors may be due to phonological or
perceptual factors rather than syntactic or morphological
differences ESL teachers should be aware of the fact that
some learners of English fully understand the third person
singular present ending and can even produce it
systematically when they write in English however they omit
it frequently when they are speaking One reason for this
according to Larsen-Freeman amp Celce-Murcia (1999) is
because the sound system of their native language tends not
to permit final s sounds in particular or final consonants in
general This supports the fact of similar error committed by
most Filipino ESL learners
Glenn is walking to school
This water has boiled for ten minutes
2 The Tense-Aspect System
The Formal Characteristics of the Tense-Aspect System
The Grammar Book clearly discussed tense-aspect
system should not be mistakenly understood to tense-
aspect combinations The book explains that tense simply
relates to time while aspect concerns with the internal
structure of the action occurring at any time Hence the
authors argued that the ―long-considered future tense is not
entirely a tense but an aspect as explained above In
addition future does not carry inflection for future time unlike
othersmdashthe simple past and simple present for either regular
or irregular verb In this sense what have long known as 12
―tenses was trim down only into two thus past tense and
present tense For the future aspect modals will and shall
are used They further explained that one of the reasons for
displaying the tense-aspect combinations (see the chart
below) is to demonstrate that the 12 ―tenses are simply
combinations of tense and aspect aspect Since the perfect
and progressive aspect markers contribute consistent
meaning regardless of tense in effect ESL students have to
learn only the form and meaning of the three tenses (in their
simple form) and the two aspects (perfect and progressive) to
develop an understanding of the tense-aspect system of
English
Meaning in the English Tense-Aspect System
Simple Aspect refers to events that are conceptualized as complete
wholes The events are not presented as allowing for further
development This aspect stands in contrast to progressive aspect
which is incomplete or imperfectivemdashwhere the event or state is
viewed as some portion of a whole and where there is room for
further development or change (Hirtle 1967) in Murcia (1999)
Examples Jeffrey and Erwin live in Bulacan (simple present tense)
Jeffrey and Erwin are living in Bulacan (present
progressive)
Simple Present Tenses conveys immediate factuality (Lewis 1986
in Murcia 1999)
Examples I skim the The Philippine Daily Inquirer at breakfast
The earth rotates around the sun
My mother loves orchids
It is a beautiful day
Simple Past Tense also states facts What the core meaning of the
past tense adds is a sense of remoteness (Knowles 1979 in Murcia
1999) The event can be remote in time1 and even if the event is a
recent one2
Examples 1 Princess Lara Quigaman won the Miss International
crown in 2006
2 I finished my term paper
Simple Future with will (or Contracted lsquoll) is used when the event
is conceptualized a s a whole One difference in its core meaning is
that events in the future time cannot be factually knowable in the
same way as those in the past or present can Therefore because
strictly speaking the future canrsquot be reported on factually will is said
to be used for strong predictions not factual reports
Examples We will cover the first half of the book this term
We will never know what cures tropical plants possess if
we donrsquot
become serious about preserving the forests in which
they grow
Perfect Aspect The core meaning of aspect is ―prior and it is used
in relation to some other points in time For instance present perfect
is used retrospectively to refer to a time prior to now
Examples Have you done your homework (present perfect)
He had left before I arrived (past perfect)
Mark will have finished all his chores by the time we get
there (future perfect)
Progressive Aspect is considered to be as being imperfective
meaning that it portrays an event in a way that allows it to be
incomplete somehow limited and always specific
a Present Progressive (sometimes called Present
Continuous)
Activity in progress He is attending a meeting now
Extended present Irsquom studying education at the
Philippine Normal University
A temporary situation Andrea is living with her parents
Repetition or iteration Marvin is kicking the soccer ball
around the backyard
Express future Maricel is coming tomorrow
Emotional comment on present habit Hersquos always
delivering in a clutch situation approving
Hersquos forever acting up at these affairs disapproving
A change in progress Des is becoming more and more
like her mother
b Past Progressive
An action in progress He was walking to school at 730
in the morning
Past action simultaneous with some other event that is
usually started in the simple past Katie was washing
her hair when the phone rang
Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action
Jober was coughing all night long
Social distancing I was hoping you could lend me
P1000
c Future Progressive
An action that will be in progress at a specific time in
the future Rocky will be taking a test at 800 AM
tomorrow
Duration of some specific future action Lovely will be
working on her thesis for the next three years
Perfect Progressive Aspect combines the sense of ―prior of the
perfect with the meaning of ―incompleteness inherent in the
progressive aspect
Example Elaine has been working hard on a special project
a Present Perfect Progressive
A situation or habit that began in the past (recent or
distant) and that continues up to the present (and
possibly into the future Ramiro has been going out
with Arlene
An action in programs that is not yet completed Lorna
has been reading that book
A state that changes over time The students have been
getting better and better
An evaluative comment on something observed over
time triggered by current evidence Yoursquove been
drinking again
b Past Perfect Progressive
An action or habit taking place over a period of time in
the past prior to some other past event or time Vester
had been working hard so his doctor told him to take a
vacation
A past action in progress that was interrupted by a more
recent past action Onin and Rowel had been planning
to vacation in El Nido but changed their minds after
receiving the brochure on Boracay
An ongoing past action or state that becomes satisfied
by some other event Rellie had been wanting to see
that play so he was pleased when he won the tickets
c Future Perfect Progressive
Durative or habitual action that is taking place in the
present and that will continue into the future up until or
through a specific future time On Christmas Eve we will
have been living in same house for 20 years
He will have been keeping a journal for 10 years next
month
3 Prepositions
PrepositionsTypes
A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a
sentence
Prepositions of Time at on and in
We use at to designate specific times
The train is due at 1215 pm
We use on to designate days and dates
My brother is coming on Monday
Were having a party on the Fourth of July
We use in for nonspecific times during a day a month a
season or a year
She likes to jog in the morning
Its too cold in winter to run outside
He started the job in 1971
Hes going to quit in August
Prepositions of Place at on and in
We use at for specific addresses
Daril lives at 350 Bgy Sapang Bata in Malolos
We use on to designate names of streets avenues etc
Her house is on Quezon Road
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns counties
states countries and continents)
She lives in Durham
Durham is in Windham County
Windham County is in Connecticut
Prepositions of Location in at and on
IN
(the) bed
the bedroom
the car
(the) class
the library
school
AT
class
home
the library
the office
school
work
ON
the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
You may sometimes use different
prepositions for these locations
Prepositions of Movement to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place
They were driving to work together
Shes going to the dentists office this morning
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express
movement These are simply variant spellings of the same
word use whichever sounds better to you
Were moving toward the light
This is a big step towards the projects completion
With the words home downtown uptown inside outside
downstairs upstairs we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
2 The Tense-Aspect System
The Formal Characteristics of the Tense-Aspect System
The Grammar Book clearly discussed tense-aspect
system should not be mistakenly understood to tense-
aspect combinations The book explains that tense simply
relates to time while aspect concerns with the internal
structure of the action occurring at any time Hence the
authors argued that the ―long-considered future tense is not
entirely a tense but an aspect as explained above In
addition future does not carry inflection for future time unlike
othersmdashthe simple past and simple present for either regular
or irregular verb In this sense what have long known as 12
―tenses was trim down only into two thus past tense and
present tense For the future aspect modals will and shall
are used They further explained that one of the reasons for
displaying the tense-aspect combinations (see the chart
below) is to demonstrate that the 12 ―tenses are simply
combinations of tense and aspect aspect Since the perfect
and progressive aspect markers contribute consistent
meaning regardless of tense in effect ESL students have to
learn only the form and meaning of the three tenses (in their
simple form) and the two aspects (perfect and progressive) to
develop an understanding of the tense-aspect system of
English
Meaning in the English Tense-Aspect System
Simple Aspect refers to events that are conceptualized as complete
wholes The events are not presented as allowing for further
development This aspect stands in contrast to progressive aspect
which is incomplete or imperfectivemdashwhere the event or state is
viewed as some portion of a whole and where there is room for
further development or change (Hirtle 1967) in Murcia (1999)
Examples Jeffrey and Erwin live in Bulacan (simple present tense)
Jeffrey and Erwin are living in Bulacan (present
progressive)
Simple Present Tenses conveys immediate factuality (Lewis 1986
in Murcia 1999)
Examples I skim the The Philippine Daily Inquirer at breakfast
The earth rotates around the sun
My mother loves orchids
It is a beautiful day
Simple Past Tense also states facts What the core meaning of the
past tense adds is a sense of remoteness (Knowles 1979 in Murcia
1999) The event can be remote in time1 and even if the event is a
recent one2
Examples 1 Princess Lara Quigaman won the Miss International
crown in 2006
2 I finished my term paper
Simple Future with will (or Contracted lsquoll) is used when the event
is conceptualized a s a whole One difference in its core meaning is
that events in the future time cannot be factually knowable in the
same way as those in the past or present can Therefore because
strictly speaking the future canrsquot be reported on factually will is said
to be used for strong predictions not factual reports
Examples We will cover the first half of the book this term
We will never know what cures tropical plants possess if
we donrsquot
become serious about preserving the forests in which
they grow
Perfect Aspect The core meaning of aspect is ―prior and it is used
in relation to some other points in time For instance present perfect
is used retrospectively to refer to a time prior to now
Examples Have you done your homework (present perfect)
He had left before I arrived (past perfect)
Mark will have finished all his chores by the time we get
there (future perfect)
Progressive Aspect is considered to be as being imperfective
meaning that it portrays an event in a way that allows it to be
incomplete somehow limited and always specific
a Present Progressive (sometimes called Present
Continuous)
Activity in progress He is attending a meeting now
Extended present Irsquom studying education at the
Philippine Normal University
A temporary situation Andrea is living with her parents
Repetition or iteration Marvin is kicking the soccer ball
around the backyard
Express future Maricel is coming tomorrow
Emotional comment on present habit Hersquos always
delivering in a clutch situation approving
Hersquos forever acting up at these affairs disapproving
A change in progress Des is becoming more and more
like her mother
b Past Progressive
An action in progress He was walking to school at 730
in the morning
Past action simultaneous with some other event that is
usually started in the simple past Katie was washing
her hair when the phone rang
Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action
Jober was coughing all night long
Social distancing I was hoping you could lend me
P1000
c Future Progressive
An action that will be in progress at a specific time in
the future Rocky will be taking a test at 800 AM
tomorrow
Duration of some specific future action Lovely will be
working on her thesis for the next three years
Perfect Progressive Aspect combines the sense of ―prior of the
perfect with the meaning of ―incompleteness inherent in the
progressive aspect
Example Elaine has been working hard on a special project
a Present Perfect Progressive
A situation or habit that began in the past (recent or
distant) and that continues up to the present (and
possibly into the future Ramiro has been going out
with Arlene
An action in programs that is not yet completed Lorna
has been reading that book
A state that changes over time The students have been
getting better and better
An evaluative comment on something observed over
time triggered by current evidence Yoursquove been
drinking again
b Past Perfect Progressive
An action or habit taking place over a period of time in
the past prior to some other past event or time Vester
had been working hard so his doctor told him to take a
vacation
A past action in progress that was interrupted by a more
recent past action Onin and Rowel had been planning
to vacation in El Nido but changed their minds after
receiving the brochure on Boracay
An ongoing past action or state that becomes satisfied
by some other event Rellie had been wanting to see
that play so he was pleased when he won the tickets
c Future Perfect Progressive
Durative or habitual action that is taking place in the
present and that will continue into the future up until or
through a specific future time On Christmas Eve we will
have been living in same house for 20 years
He will have been keeping a journal for 10 years next
month
3 Prepositions
PrepositionsTypes
A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a
sentence
Prepositions of Time at on and in
We use at to designate specific times
The train is due at 1215 pm
We use on to designate days and dates
My brother is coming on Monday
Were having a party on the Fourth of July
We use in for nonspecific times during a day a month a
season or a year
She likes to jog in the morning
Its too cold in winter to run outside
He started the job in 1971
Hes going to quit in August
Prepositions of Place at on and in
We use at for specific addresses
Daril lives at 350 Bgy Sapang Bata in Malolos
We use on to designate names of streets avenues etc
Her house is on Quezon Road
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns counties
states countries and continents)
She lives in Durham
Durham is in Windham County
Windham County is in Connecticut
Prepositions of Location in at and on
IN
(the) bed
the bedroom
the car
(the) class
the library
school
AT
class
home
the library
the office
school
work
ON
the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
You may sometimes use different
prepositions for these locations
Prepositions of Movement to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place
They were driving to work together
Shes going to the dentists office this morning
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express
movement These are simply variant spellings of the same
word use whichever sounds better to you
Were moving toward the light
This is a big step towards the projects completion
With the words home downtown uptown inside outside
downstairs upstairs we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
Examples We will cover the first half of the book this term
We will never know what cures tropical plants possess if
we donrsquot
become serious about preserving the forests in which
they grow
Perfect Aspect The core meaning of aspect is ―prior and it is used
in relation to some other points in time For instance present perfect
is used retrospectively to refer to a time prior to now
Examples Have you done your homework (present perfect)
He had left before I arrived (past perfect)
Mark will have finished all his chores by the time we get
there (future perfect)
Progressive Aspect is considered to be as being imperfective
meaning that it portrays an event in a way that allows it to be
incomplete somehow limited and always specific
a Present Progressive (sometimes called Present
Continuous)
Activity in progress He is attending a meeting now
Extended present Irsquom studying education at the
Philippine Normal University
A temporary situation Andrea is living with her parents
Repetition or iteration Marvin is kicking the soccer ball
around the backyard
Express future Maricel is coming tomorrow
Emotional comment on present habit Hersquos always
delivering in a clutch situation approving
Hersquos forever acting up at these affairs disapproving
A change in progress Des is becoming more and more
like her mother
b Past Progressive
An action in progress He was walking to school at 730
in the morning
Past action simultaneous with some other event that is
usually started in the simple past Katie was washing
her hair when the phone rang
Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action
Jober was coughing all night long
Social distancing I was hoping you could lend me
P1000
c Future Progressive
An action that will be in progress at a specific time in
the future Rocky will be taking a test at 800 AM
tomorrow
Duration of some specific future action Lovely will be
working on her thesis for the next three years
Perfect Progressive Aspect combines the sense of ―prior of the
perfect with the meaning of ―incompleteness inherent in the
progressive aspect
Example Elaine has been working hard on a special project
a Present Perfect Progressive
A situation or habit that began in the past (recent or
distant) and that continues up to the present (and
possibly into the future Ramiro has been going out
with Arlene
An action in programs that is not yet completed Lorna
has been reading that book
A state that changes over time The students have been
getting better and better
An evaluative comment on something observed over
time triggered by current evidence Yoursquove been
drinking again
b Past Perfect Progressive
An action or habit taking place over a period of time in
the past prior to some other past event or time Vester
had been working hard so his doctor told him to take a
vacation
A past action in progress that was interrupted by a more
recent past action Onin and Rowel had been planning
to vacation in El Nido but changed their minds after
receiving the brochure on Boracay
An ongoing past action or state that becomes satisfied
by some other event Rellie had been wanting to see
that play so he was pleased when he won the tickets
c Future Perfect Progressive
Durative or habitual action that is taking place in the
present and that will continue into the future up until or
through a specific future time On Christmas Eve we will
have been living in same house for 20 years
He will have been keeping a journal for 10 years next
month
3 Prepositions
PrepositionsTypes
A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a
sentence
Prepositions of Time at on and in
We use at to designate specific times
The train is due at 1215 pm
We use on to designate days and dates
My brother is coming on Monday
Were having a party on the Fourth of July
We use in for nonspecific times during a day a month a
season or a year
She likes to jog in the morning
Its too cold in winter to run outside
He started the job in 1971
Hes going to quit in August
Prepositions of Place at on and in
We use at for specific addresses
Daril lives at 350 Bgy Sapang Bata in Malolos
We use on to designate names of streets avenues etc
Her house is on Quezon Road
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns counties
states countries and continents)
She lives in Durham
Durham is in Windham County
Windham County is in Connecticut
Prepositions of Location in at and on
IN
(the) bed
the bedroom
the car
(the) class
the library
school
AT
class
home
the library
the office
school
work
ON
the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
You may sometimes use different
prepositions for these locations
Prepositions of Movement to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place
They were driving to work together
Shes going to the dentists office this morning
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express
movement These are simply variant spellings of the same
word use whichever sounds better to you
Were moving toward the light
This is a big step towards the projects completion
With the words home downtown uptown inside outside
downstairs upstairs we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
b Past Progressive
An action in progress He was walking to school at 730
in the morning
Past action simultaneous with some other event that is
usually started in the simple past Katie was washing
her hair when the phone rang
Repetition or iteration of some ongoing past action
Jober was coughing all night long
Social distancing I was hoping you could lend me
P1000
c Future Progressive
An action that will be in progress at a specific time in
the future Rocky will be taking a test at 800 AM
tomorrow
Duration of some specific future action Lovely will be
working on her thesis for the next three years
Perfect Progressive Aspect combines the sense of ―prior of the
perfect with the meaning of ―incompleteness inherent in the
progressive aspect
Example Elaine has been working hard on a special project
a Present Perfect Progressive
A situation or habit that began in the past (recent or
distant) and that continues up to the present (and
possibly into the future Ramiro has been going out
with Arlene
An action in programs that is not yet completed Lorna
has been reading that book
A state that changes over time The students have been
getting better and better
An evaluative comment on something observed over
time triggered by current evidence Yoursquove been
drinking again
b Past Perfect Progressive
An action or habit taking place over a period of time in
the past prior to some other past event or time Vester
had been working hard so his doctor told him to take a
vacation
A past action in progress that was interrupted by a more
recent past action Onin and Rowel had been planning
to vacation in El Nido but changed their minds after
receiving the brochure on Boracay
An ongoing past action or state that becomes satisfied
by some other event Rellie had been wanting to see
that play so he was pleased when he won the tickets
c Future Perfect Progressive
Durative or habitual action that is taking place in the
present and that will continue into the future up until or
through a specific future time On Christmas Eve we will
have been living in same house for 20 years
He will have been keeping a journal for 10 years next
month
3 Prepositions
PrepositionsTypes
A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a
sentence
Prepositions of Time at on and in
We use at to designate specific times
The train is due at 1215 pm
We use on to designate days and dates
My brother is coming on Monday
Were having a party on the Fourth of July
We use in for nonspecific times during a day a month a
season or a year
She likes to jog in the morning
Its too cold in winter to run outside
He started the job in 1971
Hes going to quit in August
Prepositions of Place at on and in
We use at for specific addresses
Daril lives at 350 Bgy Sapang Bata in Malolos
We use on to designate names of streets avenues etc
Her house is on Quezon Road
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns counties
states countries and continents)
She lives in Durham
Durham is in Windham County
Windham County is in Connecticut
Prepositions of Location in at and on
IN
(the) bed
the bedroom
the car
(the) class
the library
school
AT
class
home
the library
the office
school
work
ON
the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
You may sometimes use different
prepositions for these locations
Prepositions of Movement to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place
They were driving to work together
Shes going to the dentists office this morning
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express
movement These are simply variant spellings of the same
word use whichever sounds better to you
Were moving toward the light
This is a big step towards the projects completion
With the words home downtown uptown inside outside
downstairs upstairs we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
An evaluative comment on something observed over
time triggered by current evidence Yoursquove been
drinking again
b Past Perfect Progressive
An action or habit taking place over a period of time in
the past prior to some other past event or time Vester
had been working hard so his doctor told him to take a
vacation
A past action in progress that was interrupted by a more
recent past action Onin and Rowel had been planning
to vacation in El Nido but changed their minds after
receiving the brochure on Boracay
An ongoing past action or state that becomes satisfied
by some other event Rellie had been wanting to see
that play so he was pleased when he won the tickets
c Future Perfect Progressive
Durative or habitual action that is taking place in the
present and that will continue into the future up until or
through a specific future time On Christmas Eve we will
have been living in same house for 20 years
He will have been keeping a journal for 10 years next
month
3 Prepositions
PrepositionsTypes
A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a
sentence
Prepositions of Time at on and in
We use at to designate specific times
The train is due at 1215 pm
We use on to designate days and dates
My brother is coming on Monday
Were having a party on the Fourth of July
We use in for nonspecific times during a day a month a
season or a year
She likes to jog in the morning
Its too cold in winter to run outside
He started the job in 1971
Hes going to quit in August
Prepositions of Place at on and in
We use at for specific addresses
Daril lives at 350 Bgy Sapang Bata in Malolos
We use on to designate names of streets avenues etc
Her house is on Quezon Road
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns counties
states countries and continents)
She lives in Durham
Durham is in Windham County
Windham County is in Connecticut
Prepositions of Location in at and on
IN
(the) bed
the bedroom
the car
(the) class
the library
school
AT
class
home
the library
the office
school
work
ON
the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
You may sometimes use different
prepositions for these locations
Prepositions of Movement to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place
They were driving to work together
Shes going to the dentists office this morning
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express
movement These are simply variant spellings of the same
word use whichever sounds better to you
Were moving toward the light
This is a big step towards the projects completion
With the words home downtown uptown inside outside
downstairs upstairs we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
Prepositions of Time at on and in
We use at to designate specific times
The train is due at 1215 pm
We use on to designate days and dates
My brother is coming on Monday
Were having a party on the Fourth of July
We use in for nonspecific times during a day a month a
season or a year
She likes to jog in the morning
Its too cold in winter to run outside
He started the job in 1971
Hes going to quit in August
Prepositions of Place at on and in
We use at for specific addresses
Daril lives at 350 Bgy Sapang Bata in Malolos
We use on to designate names of streets avenues etc
Her house is on Quezon Road
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns counties
states countries and continents)
She lives in Durham
Durham is in Windham County
Windham County is in Connecticut
Prepositions of Location in at and on
IN
(the) bed
the bedroom
the car
(the) class
the library
school
AT
class
home
the library
the office
school
work
ON
the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
You may sometimes use different
prepositions for these locations
Prepositions of Movement to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place
They were driving to work together
Shes going to the dentists office this morning
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express
movement These are simply variant spellings of the same
word use whichever sounds better to you
Were moving toward the light
This is a big step towards the projects completion
With the words home downtown uptown inside outside
downstairs upstairs we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
Prepositions of Location in at and on
IN
(the) bed
the bedroom
the car
(the) class
the library
school
AT
class
home
the library
the office
school
work
ON
the bed
the ceiling
the floor
the horse
the plane
the train
You may sometimes use different
prepositions for these locations
Prepositions of Movement to and No Preposition
We use to in order to express movement toward a place
They were driving to work together
Shes going to the dentists office this morning
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express
movement These are simply variant spellings of the same
word use whichever sounds better to you
Were moving toward the light
This is a big step towards the projects completion
With the words home downtown uptown inside outside
downstairs upstairs we use no preposition
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
Grandpa went home
They both went outside
To (Go to)
1 Under (Create Subfolder under this Folder)
2 In (The file is in the folder)
3 As (Save as)
4 From (Receive message fromhellip)
Common Prepositions
about
above
across
after
against
around
at
before
behind
below
beneath
beside
besides
between
beyond
by
down
during
except
for
from
in
inside
into
like
near
of
off
on
out
outside
over
since
through
throughout
till
to
toward
under
until
up
upon
with
without
according to
because of
by way of
in addition to
in front of
in place of
in regard to
in spite of
instead of
on account of
out of
4 Nouns
Concrete and Abstract Nouns
A noun is the name of a person place or thing
The categories of person or place are self-evident
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns
mother hope
fabric improvement
chocolate evil
music desperation
perfume cooperation
A noun can also indicate number Singular nouns
name one person place or thing Plural nouns name more
than one person place or thing Most plural nouns are
formed by adding either ndashs or ndashes to their singular forms
The plurals of some nouns however are formed in other
ways and must be memorized
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns name groups of persons or things
They can be either singular or plural depending on the
meaning
PERSON Bob girl swimmer Ms Yang Uncle Bryan
PLACE kitchen St James Street school Hiroshima
The category thing on the other hand contains several sub-
ategories visible things ideas actions conditions and qualities
VISIBLE THINGS paper chair CD
IDEAS harmony freedom recession
ACTIONS competition exercise labor
CONDITIONS joy health happiness
QUALITIES compassion intelligence drive
5 Articles and Determiners
The is used with specific nouns The is required when the
noun it accompanies refers to something that is one of a kind
The Articles
Articles The three articles mdash a an the mdash are adjectives The is
called the definite article because it names specifically a noun a
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
The moon circles the earth
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something in the abstract
The United States has encouraged the use of the private
automobile as opposed to the use of public transit
The is required when the noun it accompanies refers to
something named earlier in the text (See below)
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with
consonants (a cow a barn a sheep) we use an before
singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple an urban blight an open door) If you
would like help with the distinction between count and non-
count nouns please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns
Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a
horse a history book a hotel) but if an h-word begins with
an actual vowel sound use an an (as in an hour an honor)
We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed
say to the u of an ugly incident) We would say a once-in-a-
lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled
wuntz and won)
and an are called indefinite articles because they dont These words
are also called noun markers or determiners because they are
followed by a noun
6 Conjunctions and Logical Connectors
Their relatives correlative conjunctions not only denote
equality but they also make the joining tighter and more
As their name implies conjunctions join together elements of thought
words phrases sentences and paragraphs
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
emphatic
Coordinating
Conjunctions
Correlative
Conjunctions
and
but
or
nor
for
so
yet
both and
not only but also
either or
neither nor
whether or
just as so too
Examples
John and Sally built a fish pond
The train was late and Tom was tired
Just as the smell of baking brought back memories
so too did the taste of the cider
Coordinating and correlative conjunctions are great when
two ideas are of the same importance but many times one
idea is more important than another
The subordinate clause supplies a time reason and
condition and so on for the main clause
TIME after before since when whenever while until as
REASON although though even though while
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest kind and they denote
equality of relationship between the ideas they join
Subordinating conjunctions allow a writer to show which idea is
more and which is less important The idea in the main clause is the
more important while the idea in the subordinate clause (made
subordinate by the subordinating conjunction) is less important
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
CONCESSION although though even though while
PLACE where wherever
CONDITION if unless until in case provided that
assuming that even if
MANNER as if as though how
7 Word Form and Function
---still on progress---
---still on progress---
8 Phrases and Clauses
There are several types of dependant clauses
TABLE OF PHRASE AND CLAUSE TYPES
PHRASES function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Prepositional phrases (most common type of phrase)
Acts mostly as adverbs sometimes as adjectives or nouns begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
I walked to the store (adverb) With a smile I
told the joke (adjective) After sunset is
a good time to go fishing (noun)
Absolute phrases (noun or pronoun and a participle with modifiers)
Has no grammatical connection to any part of speech instead modifies the entire rest of the sentence
An uncertain future looming
I forged ahead
Appositive phrases
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it
My English teacher an excellent author just
published his second book
Verbal phrases
Infinitive phrases Acts as nouns I wanted to leave
A phrase is a group of related words that lack a subject or a
verb or both A phrase cannot stand alone as a sentence but is used
in sentences as single parts of speech There are several types of
phrases See table of phrase types
A clause is a group of related words that contain both a subject and
a verbpredicate thus it may be able to stand alone as a sentence
White dogs are pretty (independent clause) or it may not Although
white dogs are pretty (dependant clause)As shown in the
preceding example a subordinating word is used in dependent
clauses This word relates the dependent clause to an independent
clause thus giving purpose to the dependent clause Although white
dogs are pretty they are not popular Such words are either
subordinating conjunctions (such as as if while since) or relative
pronouns (such as which that who) Not all dependent clauses can
stand alone simply by removing the subordinating word Dependent
clauses are used as single parts of speech being either a noun an
adjective or an adverb
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
Participle phrases Acts as adjectives
Flying high in the air the
rocket exploded
Gerund phrases Acts as nouns Getting the promotion is
my only hope
CLAUSES (dependant) function as nouns adjectives or adverbs
Type Definition Example
Relative or Adjective clauses
Acts as an adjective and begins with a relative pronoun what which who that whatever whoever
Bob didnt get the job in administration which really surprised his friends The dress that she bought on Tuesday was torn
Noun clauses Acts as a noun Whoever stole my pen must give
it back
Adverb clauses
Acts as an adverb by telling something about the verb
Mary felt happy when she found her dog
Elliptical clauses
Grammatically incomplete but clear in meaning
I recommend (that) you go to the doctorMay omit ―thatltopgt I knew he could fix the car better than I (could fix the car) May omit ―could fix the carltigt
9 WH-Questions
FORM
Variety of Constituents
MEANING
The following is an inventory of common whh-words and their
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
Statement Aries wrote an angry memo to his boss before he
quit
A variety of constituents can be questioned in a wh-question
as follows
Subject NP Who wrote an angry memo to his boss before
he quit (Lee)
Object NP What did Lee write to his boss before he quit
(an angry memo)
Object of the Prep To whom did Lee write an angry memo
before he quit (his boss) ormdash
Who(m) did Lee write an angry memo to before he quit (his
boss)
Verb Phrase What did Lee do before he quit (He wrote an
angry memo to his boss)
Determiner Whose boss did Lee write an angry memo to
before he quit (his boss)
Adjective What kind of memo did Lee write (an angry
memo)
Adverbial When did Lee write the angry memo to his boss
(before he quit)
syntacticsemantic correspondences
Subject NP (+human) who Who did it
Subject NP (-human) what What went wrong
Subject Noun Predicate (+human) who Who is that
Subject Noun Predicate (-human) what What is that
Object NP (+human) who(m)1
Who(m) did you
tell To whom did you tell the story
Object NP (-human) what What did she say
det (possessive) whose+NP Whose idea was it
det (demonstrtive) which+NP Which excuse did they give
What+NP What alibi did they use
det (quantifier count) how much+(NP) How much (money)
did they get
det quantifier +count) how many+(NP) How many thieves
were there
det quantifier+measure word2 how long How long did it take
them
ADJ (quality) how How did they look
whathelliplike What did they look like
ADJ (color size nationality) What color was it
Intensifier how+ ADJ How calm did they seem
How+ADV How fast did they get away
VP whatdo What did they do next
Advl (means) how How did they get away
Advl (direction) where Where did they go
Advl (position) where Where did they hide
Advl (time) when When were they discovered
Advl (manner) how How did she take the news
Advl (reason) why Why did they confess
Advl (purpose) whatfor What didi they do that for
Advl (frequency) how often How often does it end this
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
way
10 Yes-No Questions
L2 learners need to know that in a yesno question the
first auxiliary verb in the sentence should appear before the
subject and carry the tense of the question (if there is a
tense) If there is no auxiliary verb the be copula should be
moved before the subject If there is no auxiliary verb or be
copula then do must be introduced in the auxiliary to make
subject-operator inversion possible
Consider the following examples
With a modal Can she go +Yesshe can
-No she canrsquot
With a phrasal modal Is she able to go +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
With perfect aspect Has she gone +Yes she has
-No she hasnrsquot
With progressive aspect Is she going +Yes she is
-No she isnrsquot
If do is the operator in the question it is also used in
the short answer with the same tense used in the question
Does she go there often +Yes she does ndashNo
she doesnrsquot
YesNo questions are often defined as questions for which
either ldquoyesrdquo or ldquonordquo is the expected answer
Form SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION A syntactic rule inverting the subject and operator gives rise to
the characteristics form of yesno questions in English
Example
Vester is studying in Baguio this summer
(+inversion + rising intonation) Is Vester studying in
Baguio this summer
