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AEF SUGIHARTONI

CHAPTER 10 ASPECT 10.1 Generic and specific predications 10.2 Stative predicates and dynamic predicates 10.3 Durative and punctual 10.4 Telic and atelic 10.5 Ingressive, continuative, egressive aspect 10.6 Prospective and retrospective 10.7 Some grammatical expressions of aspect

Aspect is both grammatical and lexical ; it is expressed in predicates, especially in verb inflections and collocations of verbs.Ex : Its beggining to break, / Its breaking, / it broke, / its Broken. However, the expression of aspect may also appear in certain temporal adverbs and in the choice of referring expressions.

The Conclusion of Aspect is expressed primarily in the predicates of sentences.

In Englishgrammar, a predicateis one of the two main parts of a sentence. (The other main part is thesubject.)

A predicate is usually defined as a word group that comes after the subject to complete the meaning of thesentenceorclause.

Felix laughed(1) A predicate may be just a single word: theverb. In this first example, the verblaughed is the predicate of the sentence:

1. Generic and Specific Predications

Generic has two types. Generic is the statements about things that we can not change. Non-Generic is statement about things or situation we can change.

1a. Two and two make four.1b. Rabbits are rodents.1c. The Atlantic Ocean separates Africa and South America.1d. A stitch in time saves nine.Sentences 1a-d are eternal truths, statements about things that we do not expect to change.They report unbounded situation, or states.

2a. Gregory is here.2b. I have a headache.2c. The company manufactures silicon chips.2d. Stella seems happy.Sentences 2a-d are about temporary states; theyare bounded. And sentences are certain situations exist at thepresent time.3a. Gregory is ALREADY here.3b. I STILL have a headache.3c. The company does NOT YET manufacture silicon happy.3d. Stella doesnt seem happy ANY MORE/... NO LONGER seem happy.Sentences 3a-d Contain the same information but the aspectualmodifiers call attention to boundaries.

Form :

VerbPrevious StatePresent StateAlready- +Means : May suggest that theb speaker did not expect gregory so soon.Still++Means : May suggest thought gregory might have left.Not Yet--Means : That the speaker told gregory not yet to come it is still no reason.

2. Stative Predicates and Dynamic Predicates

Stative Predicates is describe sentence that exist, whether permanent or temporary in nature.3a. Gregory arrived here.3b. I recovered from my headache.3c. The company started manufacturing silicon chips.3d. Stella lost her tired look.

Thus the following sentences are stative and have stative predicates:

4a We waited.4b The children were hungry.4c Snow lay on the ground.4d Ellen needed a dictionary.

The following are activity sentences and have dynamic predicates.

5a Something moved.5b The sun came up.5c The boat drifted along.5d They discussed the plan.

A stative predicate is typically durative in aspect. For each of thesentences 4ad we can ask How long?, How long did we wait?How long were the children hungry?, and so on. And we can addexpressions that tell the length of time: for an hour, all day, fromChristmas till New Years Day, all during the parade, as long as shewas studying.

A stative predication relates a situation that does not changeduring the time when the predication is valid. Thus, if the sentenceJesse had a headache all morning is true, then at every instant duringthat morning the sentence Jesse has a headache was true. To saythis in another way, a stative predication relates a situation that consistsof homogeneous parts.

Stative is typical duration in aspect.Ex : I needed a rest.That sentence not yet showing how long I need a rest. How many time I ned a rest.If : I needed a rest an hour.Both of senteces are true because a stative predication relates a situation than consists of homogeneous parts.

Dynamic is about explaination with duration who was determined and it was running in accordance with the time that has been made / as usual.Ex : Employes are working 8 hours/day.that we know when the time for the end.The conclution :Stative : The sentences who never know how many time or the sentence that we do not know how long the duration is running.Dynamic : The sentences that we just know the timing from begin to ending.

3. Durative and Punctual

They sat in the last row can be the equivalentof what is more precisely expressed as They sat down in the lastrow (punctual) or of They were sitting in the last row (durative). Itcan also have a distributed sense, as in They sat in the last rowevery time they went to the theatre. This sentence expresses habitualaspect, customary occurrence distributed over various occasions.However, a simple past tense verb can only express habitual aspectif there is some expression of frequency, that is, some expressionof how the event is distributed in time (every time, every Saturday,twice a month, seldom, often, etc.). English has a more specificway of expressing habitual aspect, one which is used only for customaryevents in the past: They used to sit in the last row. With used to thepredication is specified as habitual whether there is an expressionof frequency or not.Habitual aspect in the present can be expressed with the simplepresent tense form of a verb.

Durative is Of, related to, or being the verbal aspect that expresses action continuing unbroken for a period of time.

Punctual isOf,relatedto,orbeingtheverbalaspectthatexpressesmomentaryactionoractionconsideredashavingnotemporal duration. A number of punctual verbs of this type can be used in the present tense to express an event planned for a future time.

Ex : Titanic movie was shown in three hours. (Durative)

Ex : Titanic Movie is running on teather from 07.00 pm until 10.00 am (Punctual)

TELIC AND ATELICNow, what do the terms atelic and telic mean? Examine thesesentences.14a George was waiting. - Sandra was holding the baby.14b Sandra was swimming. - George was running.The sentences in 14a are stative and those in 14b are activities. If itis true that George was waiting and Sandra was swimming, for example,then we can report that George waited and Sandra swam. The predicatesdo not have an end or a goal; they are atelic.

Conclution of Atelic is the sentence are carried out and have a result.Actually, no sentence or activities that no results. but here stated that Atelic is something existing activities have goal but the goal like often activity . but that does not mean we do things that are included what we like.

10.5 Ingressive, continuative, egressiveaspect

10.5.1 Predicates of location

24a The lamp is on the table.24b Some oranges are in that basket.24c Donald is at the door.In these sentences on, in and at are two argument predicates. Other locative prepositions such as above, beside, near, next-to, and under are also two-argument predicates

Example :Ingressive aspect: Donald gets to/arrives at/reaches the door.Continuative aspect:Donald stays at/remains at the door.Egressive aspect :1. Donald leaves/departs from the door.

Aspect differs but thematic structure is the same:Argument, -Predicate, - Argument Affected Status, Location

Donald Door

Causative locative verbs have a valency of three.1.Someone puts/place the lamp on the table.2. Someone leaves/keeps the lamp on the table.3. Someone removes/takes the lamp from the table.

Verbs like these have the meaning cause something to be, to remain, or not to be, in a place.Argument - Predicate - S_Theme

Agent Cause Argument Argument

Affected Status, Location

On the explain above that ; Argument : someonePredicate CauseArgument and Argument; can be affected or status and location.

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10.5.2 Predicates of possessionSimilar to locative expressions are expressions of possession.27 Ella has/owns a car.We express the ingressive, continuative, and egressive aspects of the possessing with the verbs illustrated in the next group of sentences.27a Ella gets/acquires a car. [inception]27b Ella keeps the car. [duration]27c Ella loses/gives up the car. [termination]Some 3-argument predicates express a change of possession.

10.5.3 Predicates of cognitionA third group of stative verbs expresses various aspects of knowing. They are cognition predicates.29 Jeffrey knows/is-aware-of the answer.Again there are ways of telling the beginning, middle and end of this situation.29a Jeffrey learns/finds/gets the answer.29b Jeffrey remembers the answer.29c Jeffrey forgets the answer.

And there are verbs that express the causing of Jeffreys knowing.30a Someone tells/teaches/shows the answer to Jeffrey. or, with a slightly different arrangement.30b Someone informs Jeffrey of the answer.

10.5.4 Event predicates & 10.5.5 Nouns and adjectives as predicatesThese sentences have the structure Event+Locative Predicate+ Time.Ex:The meeting is at 2:00.The game was on Sunday.These sentences indicate some role, condition or status.

Ex: Philip is a physicist.We were awfully tired

10.5.6 Aspectual verbsAspectual verbs (called aspectualizersby some scholars) which express some aspect of an event. An event, by definition, has duration.Ex:The meeting is beginning now.The game went on for hours.

That sentences are no other argument but some expression of time.

The orchestra continued the performance.The orchestra continued to play until eleven.These example, the object of the verb is an event noun or a reduced clause.

10.6 Prospective and retrospectiveFred figured his friends had already started the trip.Fred figured his friends were starting the trip just then.Fred figured his friends would soon be starting the trip.

Prospective verbs; they are oriented toward later happenings.Ex: Tata is thinking of visiting her grandmother.We asked Rizal to drive slower.

retrospective verbs. Are Verbs like apologize and deny.Ex:Edgar apologized for missing the meeting.(or,for having missed the meeting)We denied seeing the report.(or,having seen the report)

10.7 Some grammatical expressionsof aspect1). 10.7.1 The prospectiveillustrate a prospective form.They are to leave.You are not to worry Are we to wait here?This form, be+to+verb expresses a looking forward;

10.7.2 The perfect or retrogressiveThey have left illustrates a verb structure which is traditionally called present perfect. A better term might be present retrospective form. Whatever the name, for any verb it consists of two parts, a form of have and the past participle of the verb. The present perfect, or present retrospective, form, in affirmative statements, refers to events that occurred in the past and situations that began in the past and which are seen as relevant now, at the present time. Negative statements, of course, deny such events and situations

Example: The house is empty now.It has been empty for over a year.

10.7.3 The progressiveThe progressive form indicates that the activity predicated is distributed over a period of time with an implied endpoint, but it need not be distributed continuously over that time.

progressive form: Theyre arriving tomorrow, The shop is opening next week, Mr Edwards is retiring in May.The progressive can be used with atelic predicates to make a more dramatic statement of what is slated to happen in the near future.

Well be walking through several rooms and Ill be pointing out theinteresting details and telling you the historic facts associated with them. Youll be seeing some valuable art objects and youll be learning why the building has the form it hasOmission of every be-ing in this speech would have no effect on the content.

SummaryAspect is the cover name for different ways in which the propositioncontained in a sentence is viewed. Different aspects are fairly easyto recognize and understand, but any one aspect may be expressedin various ways. The semantic nature of a predicate often has somethingto do with the aspect it expresses, but it is also a fact that somepredicates may occur in sentences with different aspects.This chapter has drawn a distinction between states and activities,the former containing stative predicates and the latter dynamic predicates.Some states express generic propositions, essentially unchanging,and others express non-generic propositions which have come aboutthrough change and may change again. Relations between a presentstate and a previous one can be indicated with the aspectual modifiersalready, still, no longer and not yet. States and activities are durative.They are also atelic, not expressing any definite endpoint.

Suggest readingComrie (1976) is the best general account of aspect in a vast numberof languages. Frawley (1992), Chapter 7, offers a more cogent overviewof the same. Leech (1987) makes an Aktionsart classification of Englishverbs, which also appears in Quirk et al. (1984).Vendler (1967) is a milestone in modern investigation of this subject.Tedeschi and Zaenen (1981) is a collection of articles on aspect,including the Dahl and Vlach works mentioned in Section 10.3. Smith(1991) seeks to develop a unified theory of aspect within UniversalGrammar based on an explication of the quite different aspectualsystems of five languages. Binnick (1991) surveys ancient and moderntheories of tense and aspect and makes his own contribution. Brinton(1988) traces the historic development of the aspectual system ofmodern English.