Schmall crim today8e_ppt_ch7

Criminology TodayAn Integrated Introduction

CHAPTER

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8eFrank Schmalleger

Copyright © 2017 by Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved

Social Structure Theories

7



Major Principles of Sociological Theories

• Social structure theories examine: Institutional arrangements within a

social structure Social processes as they affect

socialization and have an impact on social life

• Macro focus Stress types of behavior likely to be

exhibited by group members



Figure 7–1 Major Principles of Sociological Theories of CrimeSource: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.



Key Sociological Explanations For Crime

• Social structure theories Crime is the result of an individual's

location within the structure of society.• Social process and social development

theories Crime is the end product of various

social processes.• Conflict theories

Crime is the product of class struggle.



Social Structure Theories

• See formal and informal economic and social arrangements of society as the root causes of crime and deviance

• See negative aspects of social structure as producers of criminal behavior

• Highlight arrangements within society that contribute to low SES of identifiable groups as significant causes of crime



Social Disorganization Theory

• Associated with the ecological school of criminology

• W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki Found crime rates rose among displaced

persons Suggested cause was social

disorganization due to immigrants' inability to transplant norms and values from home cultures into the new one



The Chicago School

• Social ecology Links structure, organization of human

community to interactions with its localized environment

Social pathology-based disease model• Robert Park and Ernest Burgess

Viewed cities as having five concentric zones, each with unique characteristics and populations



Figure 7–2 Chicago’s Concentric Zones



Shaw and McKay

• Applied concentric zone model to study of juvenile delinquency

• Found offending rates remained constant over time within zones of transition

• Cultural transmission Traditions of delinquency transmitted

through successive generations in the same zone



The Chicago School

• Research demonstrated tendency for crime to be associated with urban transitional zones.

• Key contribution of ecological school Society has a major influence on human

behavior.



The Criminology of Place

• Environmental criminology• Emphasizes importance of geographic

location and architectural features in terms of prevalence of victimization

continued on next slide




• Sherman "Hot spots" of crime Place-based crime prevention

• Stark Theory of deviant neighborhoods





• Broken windows theory Wilson and Kelling Neighborhood physical deterioration

lead to increased crime, delinquency, vandalism

Led to increase in "order maintenance policing" and crackdown on quality-of-life offenses





• Defensible space Oscar Newman The range of mechanisms that combine

to bring an environment under the control of its residents





• Criminology of place holds that location can be as predictive of crime as the lifestyles of victimized individuals or social features of victimized households.



Collective Efficacy and Crime

• Order maintenance policies may be less effective in reducing crime than empowering residents to exert positive social control in their neighborhoods.

• Collective efficacy Collective ability of residents to produce

social action to meet common goals and preserve shared values



Strain Theory

• Strain The pressure that individuals feel to

reach socially determined goals• Anomie (Robert K. Merton)

A disjunction between socially approved means to success and legitimate goals




Strain Theory

• Merton said legitimate goals are desirable to all but acceptable means to achieve them are not equally available.




Strain Theory

• Crime becomes an alternative means to success for those lacking the tools necessary to succeed in socially approved ways.

• Not everyone accepts legitimacy of socially approved goals.



TABLE 7-1 GOALS AND MEANS DISJUNCTURE



Relative Deprivation

• Messner and Rosenfeld blame crime on inconsistencies in the American Dream.

• Relative deprivation Economic and social gaps between rich

and poor living in close proximity





• Distributive justice People's perceptions of their rightful

place in reward structure of society Culturally dependent





• Types of relative deprivation Personal• Individual feels deprived compared with

others Group• Communal sense of injustice shared by

members of a group



General Strain Theory (GST)

• Robert Agnew reformulated strain theory into a comprehensive perspective.

• Sees crime as a coping mechanism to help people deal with socioemotional problems generated by negative social relations



Figure 7–4 The Six Central Propositions of General Strain TheorySource: The Six Central Propositions of General Strain Theory by Robert Agnew from Pressured Into Crime: An Overview of General Strain Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).



General Strain Theory

• Expands upon traditional strain theory Widens focus Strain may have cumulative effect on

delinquency. More comprehensive account of

adaptations to strain More fully describes wide variety of

factors affecting choice of delinquent adaptations to strain





• Agnew says chronic or repetitive strain creates predisposition for delinquency. May manifest as negative affective

states





• Strain theories share two features. Focus on negative relationships with

others Argue that adolescents pressured into

delinquency by negative affective states



Culture Conflict Theory

• Root cause of crime found in clash of values over acceptable or proper behavior

• Thorsten Sellin Conduct norms provide valuative basis

for human behavior, are acquired early in life through childhood socialization

Clash of norms between variously socialized groups results in crime




Culture Conflict Theory

• Primary culture conflict A fundamental clash of cultures

• Secondary culture conflict Smaller cultures within the primary one

clash



Subcultural Theory

• Subculture A collection of values and preferences

communicated to participants through a process of socialization

• Subcultural theory Sociological perspective emphasizing

the contribution made by variously socialized cultural groups to the phenomenon of crime



Focal Concerns

• Walter Miller identified a lower class subculture with its own values and norms.

• Behaviors upholding these norms may violate those of middle-class culture.

• Crime is not a consequence of poverty and lack of opportunity but emanates from values characteristic of these subcultures.




Focal Concerns

• Trouble Getting in, staying out, dealing with

trouble• Toughness

Concern with masculinity• Smartness

Ability to outsmart or con others and avoid being duped




Focal Concerns

• Excitement Search for thrills: fighting, gambling,

picking up women, etc.• Fate

The concept of luck, being lucky• Autonomy

Taking care of oneself, not getting pushed around



Delinquency and Drift

• Gresham Sykes and David Matza• Members of delinquent subcultures also

participate in the larger culture, understand conventional values, know their offending is wrong.

• Use neutralizing self-talk to mitigate shame and guilt associated with violating social norms.



Figure 7–5 Techniques of NeutralizationSource: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.



Delinquency and Drift

• Delinquents drift between crime and conventional action, choosing the most expedient.

• Use neutralization techniques to overcome guilt, keep from being alienated from larger society

• Drug dealers, street robbers, carjackers, hackers all use techniques of neutralization



Violent Subcultures

• Franco Ferracuti and Marvin Wolfgang• Violence is a learned form of adaptation

to problematic life circumstances.• Learning to be violent takes place

within the context of a subculture emphasizing violence over other forms of adaptation.

• Group's value system constitutes a subculture of violence.




Violent Subcultures

• Southern subculture of violence Explains geographic differences in

violent crime in U.S. Some forms of violence more acceptable

in southern U.S.• Black subculture of violence

Explains high rate of black under-class homicide in U.S.



Differential Opportunity Theory

• Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin Blended subcultural and strain theory

• Two types of socially structured opportunities for success Legitimate• Access may be denied to members of

lower class subcultures





• Two types of socially structured opportunities for success Illegitimate opportunity structure• Subcultural paths to success not

approved of by wider culture





• Delinquent behavior results from: Ready availability of illegitimate

opportunities Replacement of cultural norms with

expedient subcultural rules• Two necessary parts to delinquent act

Behavior violates basic social norms. When officially known, criminal justice

agents agree norms were violated.continued on next slide




• Crime and deviance are as normal as any other form of behavior supported by group socialization.

• Deviance is an effort to conform to subcultural norms and expectations.

• Conventional behavior conforms to norms of wider society.



Types of Delinquent Subcultures

• Criminal subcultures Criminal role models readily available

• Conflict subcultures Status through violence

• Retreatist subcultures Drug use and withdrawal from wider

society



Types of Lower Class Youth

• Type I: Desire entry into middle class by improving economic position

• Type II: Desire entry to middle class but not improvement in economic position

• Type III: Desire wealth without entry to middle class

• Type IV: Dropouts who retreat from mainstream via drug and alcohol use



Reaction Formation

• Albert Cohen Associated with both strain theory and

subcultural perspective• Youth held accountable to norms of

wider society through "middle class measuring rod" of expectations

• Not everyone is prepared to effectively meet such expectations.




Reaction Formation

• Juveniles experience status frustration when judged according to middle-class standards they cannot achieve.

• Reaction formation Process by which a person openly

rejects that which he wants, or aspires to, but cannot obtain or achieve

Juveniles develop hostility toward middle-class values.



The Code of the Street

• Elijah Anderson Contemporary street code stresses a

hyperinflated notion of manhood resting on the idea of respect.

Street culture's violent nature means a man cannot back down from threats.

• Decent vs. street families



Gangs Today

• Modern gangs are involved in serious and violent crimes.

• Gangs can be big business. Traditional criminal activities Drug dealing

• Distinctions between gangs and violence

• Co-offending especially prevalent in the lives of gang members



Policy Implications of Social Structure Theories

• Chicago Area Project (Clifford Shaw) Tried to reduce social disorganization in

slum neighborhoods by creating community committees

• Mobilization for Youth Based on differential opportunity theory Provided new opportunities, tried to

change fundamental arrangements of society, address root causes of crime




Policy Implications of Social Structure Theories

• War on Poverty Kennedy and Johnson Administrations Programs designed to reduce crime

rates by redistributing wealth in American society



Critique of Social Structure Theories

• Some argue the inverse of the "root causes" argument. Suggest poverty and social injustices are

produced by crime• If so, addressing poverty and social

inequity as the root causes of crime is and ineffective crime prevention strategy.



Critique of Ecological Theories

• May give too much credence to the notion that spatial location determines crime

• Seems unable to differentiate between social disorganization and the things it is said to cause

• Many crimes occur outside of socially disorganized areas.



Critique of Strain Theories

• Original formulation less applicable to modern society

• Delinquents do not report being more distressed than other youth.



Critique of Subcultural Theories

• Seen as lacking in explanatory power• Seen as tautological (circular)• Has been criticized or being racist



Other Critiques of Social Structure Theories

• Link low SES to high delinquency Not supported by empirical studies

• Overemphasis on environments creates bias against looking elsewhere for possible causes.

• Cannot predict which individuals, or which proportion of given population, will turn to crime