High Empire (96-192 CE)

Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction by James E. Packer and John Figure 10-41 Apollodorus of Damascus, model of Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated 112 CE. Reconstruction by James E. Packer and John Burge. 1) Temple of Trajan, 2) Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) Forum, 6) Equestrian statue of Trajan.Burge. 1) Temple of Trajan, 2) Column of Trajan, 3) Libraries, 4) Basilica Ulpia, 5) Forum, 6) Equestrian statue of Trajan.

-2nd Century CE under Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines = Roman empire reaches greatest geographic extent and height of power

TRAJAN (98-117 CE) – SPANISH / government took on greater responsibility for its

people’s welfare, instituted social programs/ Trajan popular, granted title Optimus (the Best)

-New forum glorified Trajan’s victories in two wars against the Dacians/ huge basilica dominated colonnaded open square/ temple located behind the basilica with two libraries and commemorative Column of Trajan/ equestrian statue of the emperor in center of court

-Basilica Ulpia (Trajan’s family name, Ulpius) had apses (semicircular recesses on each short end)/ entrances were on the long side (200 ft. wide)/ clerestory windows

Figure 10-42 Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated Figure 10-42 Column of Trajan, Forum of Trajan, Rome, Italy, dedicated

112 CE.112 CE.

Figure 10-42 DetailFigure 10-42 DetailClose detail: Romans Close detail: Romans Crossing the Danube Crossing the Danube and Building a Fortand Building a Fort

Trajan’s Columnar Tomb

-Colossal freestanding column with a continuous spiral narrative frieze invented here

-128 ft. high/ originally topped with nude statue of Trajan, lost in Middle Ages and replaced with St. Peter/ square base decorated with captured Dacian arms and armor and served as Trajan’s tomb (housed his ashes and wifes)

-625 ft. band winds around column and, once painted, low reliefs depict Trajan’s two successful campaigns against the Dacians/ story is told in more than 150 episodes with about 2,500 figures/ bands increase in width toward top of column so easier to see upper portions

Figure 10-43 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, aerial view of Markets of Figure 10-43 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, aerial view of Markets of Trajan, Rome, Italy, ca. 100–112 CE. Trajan, Rome, Italy, ca. 100–112 CE.

Figure 10-44 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, interior of the great hall, Markets of Figure 10-44 APOLLODORUS OF DAMASCUS, interior of the great hall, Markets of

TrajanTrajan

Markets of Trajan-Housed shops and administrative offices

-Made of concrete

-Basic unit = Taberna (single-room shop covered by barrel vault)/ wooden inner attic used for storage

-Opened onto paved street or onto a great indoor market hall (resembled modern shopping mall)

Figure 10-45 Arch of Trajan, Figure 10-45 Arch of Trajan, Benevento, Italy, ca. 114–118 CE.Benevento, Italy, ca. 114–118 CE.

Arch of Trajan-Almost identical to Titus arch, but relief panels cover both facades giving it billboard-like function/ advertises emperor’s achievements

-Reliefs present him as guarantor of peace and security, benefactor of poor, patron of soldiers and merchants = he was “all things to all people”

-In arch’s attic he intermingles with divinities (divinely sanctioned ruler in company of gods)

Figure 10-46 Funerary relief of a circus official, from Ostia, Italy, ca. 110–130 CE. Marble, approx. 1’ 8” high. Vatican Museums, Rome. Figure 10-46 Funerary relief of a circus official, from Ostia, Italy, ca. 110–130 CE. Marble, approx. 1’ 8” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.

Trajan Restored Circus Maximus-World’s best horse teams competed in chariot races at Circus Maximus

-Below: Art produced for working class = funerary piece of circus official/ continuous narrative = same figure appears more than once in the same space at different stages of a story/ handshake between man and woman is symbol of marriage in Roman art/ she is smaller = less important/ she is standing on base = statue (not alive, died before her husband)

Figure 10-47 Portrait bust of Hadrian as general, from Tel Figure 10-47 Portrait bust of Hadrian as general, from Tel Shalem, Israel, ca. 130–138 CE. Bronze, approx. 2’ 11” high. Shalem, Israel, ca. 130–138 CE. Bronze, approx. 2’ 11” high. Israel Museum, Jerusalem.Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

Hadrian (117-138 CE)(Spaniard, connoisseur and lover of all

the arts, author and architect)

-Trajan’s chosen successor

-More portraits of Hadrian exist today than of any other emperor except Augustus

-41 years old at time of Trajan’s death and always depicted as mature adult who never ages

-Models for Hadrian’s artists = statues of mature Greek men/ wearing a beard (Greek influence)/ beards became norm for emperors for more than a century and a half

Figure 10-48 Aerial view of Figure 10-48 Aerial view of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE. 118–125 CE.

Figure 10-50 Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE. Figure 10-50 Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, Italy, 118–125 CE.

Temple of All Gods -

Pantheon-Façade is porch with eight Corinthian columns = traditional

-Revolutionary = concrete cylinder with hemispherical dome/

142 ft. in diameter/

142 ft. from dome top to floor/

Domes thickness decreases as nears the oculus (30 ft. in diameter and only light source for interior)

Domes weight was lessened through use of coffers (sunken decorative square panels)

The interior is a single unified, self-sufficient whole, uninterrupted by supporting solids.

Walls of marble veneer

Figure 10-53 Model of an insula, Ostia, Italy, second century CE. Figure 10-53 Model of an insula, Ostia, Italy, second century CE. Museo della Civiltà Romana, Rome. Museo della Civiltà Romana, Rome.

Figure 10-54 Ceiling and wall paintings in Room IV of the Insula Figure 10-54 Ceiling and wall paintings in Room IV of the Insula of the Painted Vaults, Ostia, Italy, early third century CE.of the Painted Vaults, Ostia, Italy, early third century CE.

Ostia – Rome’s Harbor City90 % of Rome’s population of close to one million lived in multistory apartment blocks called insulae which were made of brick-faced concrete

Shops occupied the ground floor, above were apartments

Deluxe apartments had private toilets

Similar to modern day apartments

Finer apartments had mosaic floors and painted walls and ceilings.

Right: Frescoed groin vault- central oculus-like medallion surrounded by eight wedge-shaped segments, each segment has white lunette with paintings of birds and flowers

Figure 10-55 Neptune and creatures of the sea, Figure 10-55 Neptune and creatures of the sea, floor mosaic in the Baths of Neptune, Ostia, Italy, floor mosaic in the Baths of Neptune, Ostia, Italy, ca. 140 CE. ca. 140 CE.

Figure 10-56 Funerary reliefs Figure 10-56 Funerary reliefs of a vegetable vendor (left) of a vegetable vendor (left) and a midwife (right), from and a midwife (right), from Ostia, Italy, second half of Ostia, Italy, second half of second century CE. Painted second century CE. Painted terracotta, approx. 1’ 5” and terracotta, approx. 1’ 5” and 11” high, respectively. Museo 11” high, respectively. Museo Ostiense, Ostia.Ostiense, Ostia.

Baths of Neptune- Black and White Floor Mosaic

Ostia – Workers’ TombsCommon people:

Communal tombs adorned with small painted terracotta plaques immortalizing activities of middle-class merchants and professional people

Vegetable seller

Midwife delivering baby

Scenes of daily life for Roman funerary reliefs

Figure 10-57 Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Figure 10-57 Apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and Faustina, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Faustina, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 1 1/2” high. Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 1 1/2” high. Vatican Museums, Rome. Vatican Museums, Rome.

Figure 10-58 Decursio, pedestal of the Column of Figure 10-58 Decursio, pedestal of the Column of Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, Antoninus Pius, Rome, Italy, ca. 161 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 1 1/2” high. Vatican Museums, Rome. approx. 8’ 1 1/2” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.

The Antonines (138-192 CE)(Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius

Verus)

After Pius’ death, Marcus and Lucius erected memorial column

Pedestal:

Apotheosis (ascent to the heavens) of Antoninus and his wife = classical tradition with well-proportioned figures, personifications (Rome with shield, Field of Mars as youth holding Egyptian obelisk) and single ground line corresponding to panel’s lower edge

Pedestal:

Decursio (ritual circling of the imperial funerary pyre)/ adopted nonclassical conventions of art of lower classes (stockier figures, ground is whole surface of relief, etc.)

Artists seeking new direction, looking at plebeian art

Figure 10-59 Figure 10-59 Equestrian statue of Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE. Bronze, approx. CE. Bronze, approx. 11’ 6” high. Musei 11’ 6” high. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Capitolini, Rome.

Figure 10-60 Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, detail of a relief from Figure 10-60 Portrait of Marcus Aurelius, detail of a relief from a lost arch, Rome, Italy, ca. 175–180 CE. Marble, approx. life-a lost arch, Rome, Italy, ca. 175–180 CE. Marble, approx. life-size. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome. size. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius-Superhuman grandeur/ larger than normal in relation

to horse/ conveys awesome power of godlike Roman emperor as ruler of whole world

-Medieval Period: was not melted down (pagan image) because thought it was Constantine

-Inspired Renaissance sculptors to portray their patrons on horseback

-Used drill for hair, beard and eyes creating bold patterns of light and shadow

-Roman emperor appears weary, saddened and even worried

-Sculptor went beyond verism to show the ruler’s character, thoughts and his soul

Figure 10-61 Sarcophagus with the myth of Figure 10-61 Sarcophagus with the myth of Orestes, ca. 140–150 CE. Marble, 2’ 7 1/2” high. Orestes, ca. 140–150 CE. Marble, 2’ 7 1/2” high. Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland. Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland.

Figure 10-62 Asiatic sarcophagus with kline Figure 10-62 Asiatic sarcophagus with kline portrait of a woman, from Rapolla, near Melfi, portrait of a woman, from Rapolla, near Melfi, Italy, ca. 165–170 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ 7” high. Italy, ca. 165–170 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ 7” high. Museo Nazionale Archeologico del Melfese, Melfi.Museo Nazionale Archeologico del Melfese, Melfi.

From Cremation to Burial-Romans began to favor burial over cremation.

-Required larger containers for their remains, this led to sudden demand for sarcophagi

-Greek mythology popular subject for sarcophagi

-Repetition of sarcophagus compositions indicates sculptors has access to pattern books

-Sarcophagus production major industry during High and Late Empire

-Western style = reliefs on front & sides,

Eastern style = reliefs on all four sides

Figure 10-63 Mummy portrait of a man, from Faiyum, Figure 10-63 Mummy portrait of a man, from Faiyum, Egypt, ca. 160–170 CE. Encaustic on wood, approx. 1’ Egypt, ca. 160–170 CE. Encaustic on wood, approx. 1’ 2” high. Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo.2” high. Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo.

Roman Mummy PortraitsEgypt became Roman province in 30 BCE, continued to bury dead in mummy cases

Painted portraits on wood with encaustic replaced traditional stylized portrait masks

Refined use of brush and spatula/ master of textures and light/ sensitive portrayal of deceased’s calm demeanor

Most likely painted when subject was still alive

Late Empire (192-337 CE)

Figure 10-64 Painted portrait of Figure 10-64 Painted portrait of Septimius Severus and his family, from Septimius Severus and his family, from Egypt, ca. 200 CE. Tempera on wood, Egypt, ca. 200 CE. Tempera on wood, approx. 1’ 2” diameter. Staatliche approx. 1’ 2” diameter. Staatliche Museen, Berlin. Museen, Berlin.

Figure 10-66 Chariot procession of Septimius Severus, relief from the Arch Figure 10-66 Chariot procession of Septimius Severus, relief from the Arch of Septimius Severus, Lepcis Magna, Libya, 203 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ 6” of Septimius Severus, Lepcis Magna, Libya, 203 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ 6” high. Castle Museum, Tripoli. high. Castle Museum, Tripoli.

-Roman power begins to erode/ economy declines

-Pagan ancient world gradually transforms into the Christian Middle Ages

The Severans (193-235 CE)-Septimius Severus (African-born general) rules

-Left: Family Portrait/ tondo format painted with tempera (pigments in egg yolk) on wood/ emperor’s hair is gray = advanced age/ younger son erased by older son, Caracalla (succeeded his father, had his brother murdered, memory damned and ordered death of his own wife)

Right: Relief from Arch of Severus/

Late Antique Style: no motion, stately stillness/ second row figures have no connection with ground line/ frontal figures/ more non-naturalistic, non-classical elements

Figure 10-65 Figure 10-65 Portrait of Portrait of Caracalla, ca. Caracalla, ca. 211–217 CE. 211–217 CE. Marble, approx. Marble, approx. 1’ 2” high. 1’ 2” high. Metropolitan Metropolitan Museum of Art, Museum of Art, New York. New York.

Figure 10-68 Reconstruction drawing of the central hall (frigidarium) Figure 10-68 Reconstruction drawing of the central hall (frigidarium) of the Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216 CE.of the Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216 CE.

Figure 10-67 Plan of Figure 10-67 Plan of the central section of the central section of the Baths of the Baths of Caracalla, Rome, Caracalla, Rome, Italy, 212–216 CE. 1) Italy, 212–216 CE. 1) Natatio, 2) Natatio, 2) Frigidarium, 3) Frigidarium, 3) Tepidarium, 4) Tepidarium, 4) Caldarium, 5) Caldarium, 5) Palaestra. The Palaestra. The bathing, swimming, bathing, swimming, and exercise areas and exercise areas were surrounded by were surrounded by landscaped gardens, landscaped gardens, lecture halls, and lecture halls, and other rooms, all other rooms, all enclosed within a enclosed within a great concrete great concrete perimeter wall. perimeter wall.

Ruthless Caracalla- His portrait captures his suspicious, fearful and brutal character

Erected Baths of Caracalla with imperial funds to win public’s favor/ made of brick-faced concrete/ walls up to 140 ft. high/ covered almost 50 acres/ symmetrical in design/ cold, warm and hot water baths/ had open-air performances/ fenestrated groin vaults/ stuccoed vaults/ mosaic floors/ marble-faced walls/ colossal statuary/1,600 bathers at a time/ furnaces circulated hot air through hollow floors and walls

Figure 10-71 Battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), from Rome, Figure 10-71 Battle of Romans and barbarians (Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus), from Rome, Italy, ca. 250–260 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Altemps, Italy, ca. 250–260 CE. Marble, approx. 5’ high. Museo Nazionale Romano-Palazzo Altemps, Rome. Rome.

Figure 10-71 DetailFigure 10-71 DetailRoman general (perhaps Ostilianus, Emperor Dicius' Roman general (perhaps Ostilianus, Emperor Dicius' son, died 252 AD) and his horseson, died 252 AD) and his horse

Soldier Emperors (235-284 CE) – Time of continuous civil war, generals declared emperors by troops, then murdered by other generals

-3rd century burial of dead widespread even in imperial family/ sarcophagi popular in Rome

-Above: Battle between Romans and Goths/ no illusion of space/ floating ground lines/ mass of intertwined, moving bodies/ central horseman stands out = fearless commander assured of victory/ has emblem of Mithras carved on forehead (Persian god of light, truth and victory over death)/ rejects classical style

Figure 10-72 Sarcophagus of a philosopher, ca. 270–280 CE. Marble, approx. 4’ 11” high. Vatican Museums, Rome. Figure 10-72 Sarcophagus of a philosopher, ca. 270–280 CE. Marble, approx. 4’ 11” high. Vatican Museums, Rome.

Insecurity of times led many Romans to seek solace in philosophy.

-On sarcophagi in 3rd century, deceased assumes role of learned intellectual/ Roman philosopher holding scroll, also might depict Christ flanked by his apostles (popular for Christian burials)/ frontal figure and subordinate flanking figures are common in Early Christian art

Figure 10-73 Plan and reconstruction drawing of Figure 10-73 Plan and reconstruction drawing of the Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Lebanon, third the Temple of Venus, Baalbek, Lebanon, third century CE.century CE.

Decline in respect for classical art also seen in architecture.

Temple of Venus - Stone

-Circular domed cella set behind a gabled columnar facade

-Platform is scalloped/ entablature is scalloped

-Five-sided Corinthian capitals with corresponding pentagonal bases

-Arch inserted within the triangular pediment

Figure 10-74 Portraits of the four tetrarchs, from Figure 10-74 Portraits of the four tetrarchs, from Constantinople, ca. 305 CE. Porphyry, approx. 4’ Constantinople, ca. 305 CE. Porphyry, approx. 4’ 3” high. Saint Mark’s, Venice.3” high. Saint Mark’s, Venice.

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy (284-306 CE)

-In order to restore order to Roman empire, Diocletian decided to share power with his potential rivals.

-293- established the tetrarchy (rule by four) and adopted title of Augustus of the East

-When Diocletian retired in 305, it collapsed

-Division of Roman Empire into eastern and western spheres survived throughout the Middle Ages (Latin West and Byzantine East)

-Right: Artist tried to represent the nature of tetrarchy itself- to portray four equal partners in power/ made of purple marble/ embrace one another/ large cubical heads on squat bodies/ drapery is schematic and bodies are shapeless/ faces are emotionless masks/ human figure is conceived in iconic terms

Figure 10-76 Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, 312–315 Figure 10-76 Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, 312–315

CE CE

Figure 10-76 DetailFigure 10-76 DetailRaking view of South face from ESE, with Raking view of South face from ESE, with figures on bases of columns.figures on bases of columns.

Figure 10-77 Figure 10-77 Distribution of Distribution of largess, detail of the largess, detail of the north frieze of the north frieze of the Arch of Constantine, Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy, 312–Rome, Italy, 312–315 CE. Marble, 315 CE. Marble, approx. 3’ 4” high. approx. 3’ 4” high.

Constantine (306-337 CE)Constantine attributed his victory at the battle of the Milvian Bridge to the aid of the Christian god/ 313 issued the Edict of Milan, ending persecution of Christians/ founded a New Rome on site of Byzantium and named it Constantinople/ 325 Christianity official religion of Roman Empire/ Constantinian art is a mirror of transition from classical to medieval world

-Right: Arch commemorates defeat of Maxentius at Milvian Bridge/ triple passageway/ sculptural decoration is taken from other monuments, recut heads and added labels

-Reuse of statues and reliefs = decline in creativity and technical skill and/or Constantine wanted to be associated with the “good emperors” (Trajan, Hadrian, etc.) of the 2nd cen.

Figure 10-78 Portrait of Figure 10-78 Portrait of Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Constantine, from the Basilica Nova, Rome, Italy, ca. 315–330 CE. Rome, Italy, ca. 315–330 CE. Marble, approx. 8’ 6” high. Palazzo Marble, approx. 8’ 6” high. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.dei Conservatori, Rome.

Constantine – Depicted as eternal youthful head of state

-8 ½ ft. tall head is fragment of a once enthroned statue of the emperor that was made of brick core, wooden torso covered with bronze and head and limbs of marble/ held an orb, symbol of global power in left hand/ eternal authority, power is depicted- his is absolute ruler

Figure 10-79 Reconstruction drawing of the Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine), Rome, Italy, ca. 306–312 CE. Figure 10-79 Reconstruction drawing of the Basilica Nova (Basilica of Constantine), Rome, Italy, ca. 306–312 CE.

Basilica Nova (New Basilica) -Constantine’s gigantic portrait sat in the western apse of the Basilica Nova (like Greco-Roman divinity in temple cella)

-300 ft. long and 215 ft. wide/ brick-faced concrete walls 20 ft. thick supported by coffered barrel vaults in the aisles/ walls and floors marbled and stuccoed/ groin vaults and clerestory windows permitted ample light in nave

Figure 10-80 Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (exterior). Figure 10-80 Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (exterior).

Figure 10-81 Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (interior).Figure 10-81 Aula Palatina, Trier, Germany, early fourth century CE (interior).

Constantine’s Basilica-like Audience Hall – Aula Palatina

-Brick exterior

-190 ft. long and 95 ft. wide

-lead framed panes of glass for the windows

-wooden, coffered ceiling

-main hall, no aisles, apse with arch

Parallels many Early Christian basilicas

Later converted into a Christian church