Instrument Development

Research Methods II

Presented by: Tanecia Stevens

International University of the Caribbean

2/27/2015 1Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

What is an Instrument

Instrument is the generic term that

researchers use for a measurement

device (survey, test, questionnaire,

etc.). To help distinguish between

instrument and instrumentation,

consider that the instrument is the

device and instrumentation is the

course of action (the process of

developing, testing, and using the

device).2/27/2015 2Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

What is a Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a research

instrument consisting of a series of

questions and other prompts for the

purpose of gathering information from

respondents.

A questionnaire is a list of written

questions that can be completed in

one of two basic ways.

2/27/2015 3Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Postal Questionnaire

In postal questionnaire the

respondents could be asked to

complete the questionnaire with the

researcher not present. This (loosely)

refers to any questionnaire that a

respondent completes without the aid

of the researcher.

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Structured Interview

In structured interview the

respondents could be asked to

complete the questionnaire by verbally

responding to questions in the

presence of the researcher.

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Note

Although the two variations are similar

(a postal questionnaire and a

structured interview could contain

exactly the same questions), the

difference between them is important.

If, for example, we are concerned with

protecting the respondent’s anonymity

then it might be more appropriate to

use a postal questionnaire than a

structured interview.2/27/2015 6Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Closed-ended Questions

Closed-ended(or “closed question”) is

a question for which a researcher

provides a suitable list of responses

(e.g.Yes / No).

This produces mainly quantitative

data.

2/27/2015 7Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Open-ended Questions

Open-ended (or “open question”) is a

question where the researcher doesn’t

provide the respondent with a set

answer from which to choose. Rather,

the respondent is asked to answer "in

their own words".

This produces mainly qualitative data.

2/27/2015 8Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

What is an Interview

An interview is a conversation

between two or more people where

questions are asked by the interviewer

to elicit facts or statements from the

interviewee. Interviews are a standard

part of journalism and media reporting,

but are also employed in many other

situations, including research

methods.

2/27/2015 9Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Purpose of Interview

Interviews are particularly useful for

getting the story behind a participant’s

experiences.

The interviewer can pursue in-depth

information around the topic.

Interviews may be useful as follow-up

to certain respondents.

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Types of Interview

Structured Interview

Unstructured Interview

Semi-structured Interview

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Structured Interview

Description and/or Aim of interview:

Normally, structured interviews are done in a face-to-face format or via telephone using a standard set of questions to obtain data that can be aggregated because identical questions have been asked of each participant.

Nature of questioning route: fixed, given order, very standardized

2/27/2015 12Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Type of question format/structure:

Open-ended

Closed-ended with ordered response choices

Closed-ended with unordered response choices

Partially closed-ended

Role of probing: Little or none, perhaps only repeating or clarifying instructions

Aims of Analysis: Aggregate data across participants and hopefully be able to project data from a sample to a target population. Open-ended data, which usually consists of phrases, sentences and short paragraphs is usually subjected to content analysis and notions of inter-rater reliability are employed. 2/27/2015 13Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Unstructured Interview

Description and/or Aim of interview:

Normally, unstructured interviews are done in a face-to-face format and some would say you are trying to get participants to share stories. The researcher starts from a position of wanting to be sensitive to how participants construct their views and perspectives of things. Therefore, a goal is to allow the participant’s structure to dominate.

Nature of questioning route: ask questions to get people to talk about constructs/variables of interest to the researcher.

2/27/2015 14Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Type of question format/structure:

Open-ended – descriptive

Reactions to a given situation presented by the researcher

Role of probing: Simply to get the participant of talk about a topic area, normally probing questions are not directed, but rather asked to encourage the participant to keep talking or to get back to the subject of interest.

Aims of Analysis: Rich, in-depth textual data is what is available for analysis which usually consists of some approach to coding such as the open, axial and selective coding as described by Strauss and Corbin (1990). Also, it is common to see discourse analysis techniques employed to analyze this type of rich textual data.

2/27/2015 15Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Forms of interview

1. Personal Interview

2. Telephone Interview

3. Group Interview

4. Focus Group Interview

5. Depth Interview

6. Projective Techniques

2/27/2015 16Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Personal Interview

Personal Interview: Is a face to face

two way communication between the

interviewer and the respondents.

Generally the personal interview is

carried out in a planned manner and is

referred to as ‘structured interview’.

This can be done in many forms e.g.

door to door or as a planned formal

executive meeting.

2/27/2015 17Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Telephone Interview

Telephone interview the information is

collected from the respondent by

asking him questions on the phone is

called as telephone interview. The

combination of telephone and

computer has made this method even

more popular.

2/27/2015 18Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Group Interview

A group interview takes place when a

candidate is interviewed by more than

one interviewer at the same time.

Alternately, it can mean that a group of

candidates are interviewed at the

same time.

2/27/2015 19Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Focus Group Interview

Focus group interview is an

unstructured interview which involves

a moderator leading a discussion

between a small group of respondents

on a specific topic.

Focus group interview results in

advantages summed up as 10 S. they

as follow.

Synergism

Snowballing2/27/2015 20Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Stimulation

Security

Spontaneity

Serendipity

Specialization

Scientific scrutiny

Structure

speed

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Depth Interview

Depth interview is nondirective in

nature where the respondent is given

freedom to answer within the

boundaries of the topic of interest.

2/27/2015 22Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Projective Technique

Projective Techniques involve the

presentation of an ambiguous,

unstructured object, activity or person

that a respondent is asked to interpret

and explain.

In Projective Techniques, the

respondents are asked to interpret the

behaviour of others and this way they

indirectly reveal their own behaviour in

the same situation. Some of these

techniques are discussed below.2/27/2015 23Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Word Association Test: Respondents arepresented with a list of words one at a timeand they are asked to respond immediatelywith the first things that come to their minde.g. in a study on book reading habits therespondents can be presented with wordslike 2 states etc.

Cloud Picture Test: This shows two or morecharacter conversing with each other andcloud of one character is left empty as aresponse to be filled by the respondentsaccording to his interpretation of what theother characters are saying.

2/27/2015 24Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Sentence Completion Test: It is similar toa word association test where instead ofa word, a sentence is left incomplete andthe respondent is asked to fill it with thefirst thought that comes to his mind e.g.People who enter politicsare……………………..

Story Completion Study: A step further tosentence completion, is the storycompletion study: Under this a story iscreated by the researcher which definesthe topic of research and therespondents are asked to complete thestory.

2/27/2015 25Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Advantages of Interview

Method1. Opportunity for Feedback – Interviewer can provide

direct feedback to the respondent, give clarificationsand help alleviate any misconceptions orapprehensions over confidentiality that the respondentmay have in answering the interviewer’s questions

2. Probing Complex Answers – Interviewers can probeif the respondent’s answer is too brief or unclear. Thisgives interviewers some flexibility in dealing withunstructured questions and is especially suited forhandling complex questions

3. Length of Interview – If the questionnaire is verylengthy, the personal interview is the best techniquefor getting respondents to cooperate, withoutovertaxing their patience

2/27/2015 26Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Cont.Complete Questionnaires – Personal ensures

ensure that the respondent will answer allquestions asked, unlike in telephone interviewwhere the respondent may hang up or in mailquestionnaire where some questions may gounanswered

5. Props & Visual Aids – Interviewers have theopportunity of showing respondents items suchas sample products, graphs ands sketches,which can aid in their answers

6. High Participation – Interviewing respondentspersonally can increase the likelihood of theirparticipation, as many people prefer tocommunicate directly verbally and sharinginformation and insights with interviewers

2/27/2015 27Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Disadvantages of Interview

Method1. Cost – Personal interviews are usually more

expensive than mail, telephone and internet surveys.Factors influencing the cost of the interview includethe respondents’ geographic proximity, the length andcomplexity of the questionnaire, and the number ofnon-respondents

2. Lack of Anonymity – Respondents are notanonymous in a personal (face-to-face) interview andmay be reluctant to disclose certain information to theinterviewer. Hence, considerable must be expendedby the interviewer when dealing with sensitivequestions to avoid bias effects on the respondent’spart

3. Necessity for Callbacks – When a person selectedfor interview cannot be reached the first time, acallback has to be scheduled which result in extracost and time spent 2/27/2015 28Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

Cont.4.Variance Effects – It has been shown that the

demographic characteristics of the interviewer caninfluence the answers of the respondents. In onestudy, male interviewers had a much larger variance ofanswers than female interviewers in a sample of mostfemale individuals

5. Dishonesty – Interviewers cheat to make their lifeeasier and save time and effort

6. Personal Style – The interviewers individualquestioning style, techniques, approach anddemeanor may influence the respondents’ answers

7. Global Considerations – Cultural aspects mayinfluence peoples’ willingness to participate in aninterview (e.g. repressive Middle Eastern culturesdiscourage females from being questioned by maleinterviewers)

2/27/2015 29Tanecia Stevens BA G&C

References

http://researchrundowns.wordpress.co

m/quantitative-methods/instrument-

validity-reliability/

http://jobsearch.about.com/od/jobsear

chglossary/g/groupinterview.htm

http://www.sociology.org.uk/methodq.p

df

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