Research meth

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ICT POLICY AND

REGULATION

(MSCICTPR)

Prepared and submitted by BWANAKWELI Chantal

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ASSIGNMENT

- Assignment: 2012 by BWANAKWELI Chantal Page 2

Table of Contents

Question 1- Answer ................................................................................................................................. 3

Question 2- Answer ................................................................................................................................. 7

Question 3- Answer ............................................................................................................................... 19

Question 4- Answer ............................................................................................................................... 22

Question 5- Answer ............................................................................................................................... 24


Question 1- Answer

What is the purpose of research? Outline the types of research

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

"Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our

understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: Pose a question, collect data

to answer the question, and present an answer to the question. (By Creswell, J. W.

(2008))

Research and experimental development is formal work undertaken systematically to

increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of humanity, culture and society,

and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.

Research is finding out what you don't already know. No one knows everything, but

everybody knows something. However, to complicate matters, often what you know, or

think you know, is incorrect.( http://public.wsu.edu/~taflinge/research.html)

There are two basic purposes for research: to learn something, or to gather evidence. The

first, to learn something, is for your own benefit. It is almost impossible for a human to

stop learning. It may be the theory of relativity or the RBIs of your favorite ball player,

but you continue to learn. Research is organized learning, looking for specific things to

add to your store of knowledge.

What you've learned is the source of the background information you use to communicate

with others. In any conversation you talk about the things you know, the things you've

learned. If you know nothing about the subject under discussion, you can neither

contribute nor understand it. (This fact does not, however, stop many people from joining

in on conversations, anyway.) When you write or speak formally, you share what you've

learned with others, backed with evidence to show that what you've learned is correct. If,

http://public.wsu.edu/~taflinge/research.html


however, you haven't learned more than your audience already knows, there is nothing

for you to share. Thus you do research.

The purpose and role of Research

Research can be conceptualized as exhibiting one or more of the following four purposes:

1. Exploratory: e.g., discovering, uncovering, exploring

2. Descriptive: e.g., summarizing, gathering info, mapping

3. Explanatory: e.g., testing and understanding causal relations

4. Predictive: e.g., predict what might happen in various scenarios

Briefly the main purpose and role of research is to help plan and gather information on a

certain topic before carrying it out .It helps to test and create a theory on a certain thing

and with the information given this helps to gather to generate a topic to find out more

on. By carrying out research this helps to gather and explore more into a certain topic

which helps to backup your opinions with the findings.

By researching you are able to backup and give others views and opinions in order to

help to justify your findings.

Research also helps to monitor something before carrying it out example an activity in a

childcare setting research helps to identify how the activity can help children ,what use

the activity will come to how the activity may have an effect on others and this helps you

to investigate more before carrying out something.

Research also helps to discover new things by gathering and looking out for what others

around have done this can helps in childcare setting as it helps to learn from others and

allows developing on your learning.

Research helps to test a hypothesis or theory by looking up on what others may say and

statistic that are given can strengthen and weaken your hypothesis by the information that

your may have gathered.


Research helps people finding result. It illuminates people: They see what have been

hidden or what has been missed.

Types of research

There are three types of research, pure, original, and secondary. Each type has the goal of

finding information and/or understanding something. The difference comes in the

strategy employed in achieving the objective.

1. Pure Research

Pure research is research done simply to find out something by examining anything. For

instance, in some pure scientific research scientists discover what properties various

materials possess. It is not for the sake of applying those properties to anything in

particular, but simply to find out what properties there are. Pure mathematics is for the

sake of seeing what happens, not to solve a problem.

The fun of pure research is that you are not looking for anything in particular. Instead,

anything and everything you find may be joined with anything else just to see where that

combination would lead, if anywhere.

2. Original Research

Original or primary research is looking for information that nobody else has found.

Observing people's response to advertising, how prison sentences influence crime rates,

doing tests, observations, experiments, etc., are to discover something new.


Original research requires two things: 1) knowing what has already been discovered,

having a background on the subject; and 2) formulating a method to find out what you

want to know. To accomplish the first you indulge in secondary research.

For the second, you decide how best to find the information you need to arrive at a

conclusion. This method may be using focus groups, interviews, observations,

expeditions, experiments, surveys, etc.

3. Secondary Research

Secondary research is finding out what others have discovered through original research

and trying to reconcile conflicting viewpoints or conclusions, find new relationships

between normally non-related researches, and arrive at your own conclusion based on

others' work. This is, of course, the usual course for college students.

Secondary research should not be belittled simply because it is not original research.

Fresh insights and viewpoints, based on a wide variety of facts gleaned from original

research in many areas, has often been a source of new ideas. Even more, it has provided

a clearer understanding of what the evidence means without the influence of the original

researcher's prejudices and preconceptions.


Question 2- Answer

Write comprehensive notes to show understanding on the following

a) Primary data Primary data is the specific information collected by the person who is doing the

research. It can be obtained through clinical trials, case studies, true experiments and

randomized controlled studies. This information can be analyzed by other experts who

may decide to test the validity of the data by repeating the same experiments.

Primary data is important for all areas of research because it is unvarnished information

about the results of an experiment or observation. It is like the eyewitness testimony at a

trial. No one has tarnished it or spun it by adding their own opinion or bias so it can form

the basis of objective conclusions.

Primary data is data gathered for the first time by the researcher. Primary data is a direct

report from someone who was actively involved in whatever it is you are discussing. The

merit of primary data is that it is direct information, uncontaminated by being transmitted

through another source. The demerits of primary data are that sometimes the person who

is on the field sees only part of the action.

Using primary data

An advantage of using primary data is that researchers are collecting information for the

specific purposes of their study. In essence, the questions the researchers ask are tailored

to elicit the data that will help them with their study. Researchers collect the data

themselves, using surveys, interviews and direct observations

For example in a recent Institute study, researchers wanted to find out about workers’

experiences in return to work after a work-related injury. Part of the research involved

interviewing workers by telephone and asking them questions about how long they were

off work and about their experiences with the return-to-work process.

The workers’ answers are considered primary data. From this, the researchers got

answers to specific information about the return-to-work process including the rates of

work accommodation offers, and why some workers refused such an offer.

Advantage and disadvantage of using Primary data is that Primary data offers tailored

information but tends to be expensive to conduct and takes a long time to process.


b) Secondary data Secondary data is data taken by the researcher from secondary sources, internal or

external. Secondary data is of two kinds, internal and external. Secondary data – whether

internal or external – is data already collected by others, for purposes other than the

solution of the problem on hand. The merit of secondary data is that it can be gathered

from a number of primary sources and weighed together to put together an overall

assessment of what has happened.

In research, Secondary data is collecting and possibly processing data by people other

than the researcher in question. Common sources of secondary data for social science

include censuses, large surveys, and organizational records.

Advantages to the secondary data collection method are:

1) It saves time that would otherwise be spent collecting data,

2) Provides a larger database (usually) than what would be possible to collect on ones

own However there are disadvantages to the fact that the researcher cannot personally

check the data so it's reliability may be questioned.

Using secondary data

There are several types of secondary data. They can include information from the Census,

a company’s health and safety records such as their injury rates, or other government

statistical information such as the number of workers in different sectors

Secondary data tends to be readily available and inexpensive to obtain. In addition,

secondary data can be examined over a longer period of time. For example, you can look

at a company’s lost-time rates over several years to see at trends.

Advantage and disadvantage of using Secondary data is that Secondary data is usually

inexpensive to obtain and can be analyzed in less time. However, because it was gathered

for other purposes, you may need to tease out the information to find what you’re looking

for.

c) Random sampling

What Is a Random Sample?

A random sample is a subset of individuals that are randomly selected from a population.

Because researchers usually cannot obtain data from every single person in a group, a

smaller portion is randomly selected to represent the entire group as a whole. The goal is

to obtain a sample that is representative of the larger population.


In statistics, a sample is a subject chosen from a population for investigation; a random

sample is one chosen by a method involving an unpredictable component.

Random sampling can also refer to taking a number of independent observations from

the same probability distribution, without involving any real population. The sample

usually is not a representative of the population of people from which it was drawn— this

random variation in the results is termed as sampling error. In the case of random

samples, mathematical theory is available to assess the sampling error. Thus, estimates

obtained from random samples can be accompanied by measures of the uncertainty

associated with the estimate. This can take the form of a standard error, or if the sample is

large enough for the central limit theorem to take effect, confidence intervals may be

calculated. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_sample)

Random sampling is one of the most popular types of random or probability sampling.

In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as

subject. The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected

independently of the other members of the population. (Random Sampling - Probability

Sampling. )

There are many methods to proceed with simple random sampling. The most primitive

and mechanical would be the lottery method. Each member of the population is assigned

a unique number. Each number is placed in a bowl or a hat and mixed thoroughly. The

blind-folded researcher then picks numbered tags from the hat. All the individuals

bearing the numbers picked by the researcher are the subjects for the study. Another way

would be to let a computer do a random selection from your population. For populations

with a small number of members, it is advisable to use the first method but if the

population has many members, a computer-aided random selection is preferred.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

One of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of assembling the

sample. It is also considered as a fair way of selecting a sample from a given population

since every member is given equal opportunities of being selected.

Another key feature of simple random sampling is its representativeness of the

population. Theoretically, the only thing that can compromise its representativeness is

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luck. If the sample is not representative of the population, the random variation is called

sampling error.

An unbiased random selection and a representative sample is important in drawing

conclusions from the results of a study. Remember that one of the goals of research is to

be able to make conclusions pertaining to the population from the results obtained from a

sample. Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random sampling,

it is reasonable to make generalizations from the results of the sample back to the

population.

Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling

One of the most obvious limitations of simple random sampling method is its need of a

complete list of all the members of the population. Please keep in mind that the list of the

population must be complete and up-to-date. This list is usually not available for large

populations. In cases as such, it is wiser to use other sampling techniques.

d) Systematic sampling

System Sampling is a method of selecting sample members from a larger population

according to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval. Typically, every "nth"

member is selected from the total population for inclusion in the sample population.

Systematic sampling is still thought of as being random, as long as the periodic interval is

determined beforehand and the starting point is random.

( http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/systematic-sampling.asp#ixzz2CwGnZAFp)

Systematic sampling is a statistical method involving the selection of elements from an

ordered sampling frame.

Systematic sampling is to be applied only if the given population is logically

homogeneous, because systematic sample units are uniformly distributed over the

population. The researcher must ensure that the chosen sampling interval does not hide a

pattern. Any pattern would threaten randomness.

Example: Suppose a supermarket wants to study buying habits of their customers, then

using systematic sampling they can choose every 10th or 15th customer entering the

supermarket and conduct the study on this sample.

A common way of selecting members for a sample population using systematic sampling

is simply to divide the total number of units in the general population by the desired

http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/systematic-sampling.asp#ixzz2CwGnZAFp


number of units for the sample population. The result of the division serves as the marker

for selecting sample units from within the general population.

For example, if you wanted to select a random group of 1,000 people from a population

of 50,000 using systematic sampling, you would simply select every 50th person, since

50,000/1,000 = 50.

In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or

subject from the population. Then, the researcher will select each n'th subject from the

list.

The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done

manually. The results are representative of the population unless certain characteristics of

the population are repeated for every n'th individual, which is highly unlikely.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling

The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is

its simplicity. It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or process into the

random selection of subjects.

Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling

is the assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance

in simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. This is

systematically eliminated in systematic sampling.

Disadvantage of Systematic Sampling

The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the

population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the

sampling technique will no longer be random and representativeness of the sample

is compromised.

e) Stratified sampling

"Stratified sampling" is a way of getting an 'average' which represents the entire universe,

or everything that exists that somebody wants to count or measure. The entire universe is

broken down into groups that don’t overlap and a 'sample' is taken from each group.

A stratified sample is a probability sampling technique in which the researcher divides

the entire target population into different subgroups, or strata, and then randomly selects


the final subjects proportionally from the different strata. This type of sampling is used

when the researcher wants to highlight specific subgroups within the population.

For example, to obtain a stratified sample of university students, the researcher would

first organize the population by college class and then select appropriate numbers of

freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors. This ensures that the researcher has adequate

amounts of subjects from each class in the final sample.

It is important to note that the strata used in stratified sampling must not overlap. Having

overlapping subgroups will give some individuals a higher chance of being selected as

subjects in the sample. If this happened, it would not be a probability sample.

Some of the most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender,

religion, educational attainment, socioeconomic status, and nationality.

When to Use Stratified Sampling

There are many situations in which researchers would choose stratified random sampling

over other types of sampling. First, it is used when the researcher wants to highlight a

specific subgroup within the population. Stratified sampling is good for this because it

ensures the presence of key subgroups within the sample.

Researchers also use stratified random sampling when they want to observe relationships

between two or more subgroups. With this type of sampling, the researcher is guaranteed

subjects from each subgroup are included in the final sample,

Advantages of Stratified Sampling

Using a stratified sample will always achieve greater precision than a simple random

sample, provided that the strata have been chosen so that members of the same stratum

are as similar as possible in terms of the characteristic of interest. Administratively, it is

often more convenient to stratify a sample than to select a simple random sample.

Another advantage that stratified random sampling has is that is guarantees better

coverage of the population. The researcher has control over the subgroups that are

included in the sample,

Disadvantages

Stratified sampling is not useful when the population cannot be exhaustively partitioned

into disjoint subgroups. It would be a misapplication of the technique to make subgroups'


sample sizes proportional to the amount of data available from the subgroups, rather than

scaling sample sizes to subgroup sizes

Again it Stratified sampling can be difficult to identify appropriate strata for a study. A

last disadvantage is that it is more complex to organize and analyze the results compared

to simple random sampling

f) Multistage sampling

Multistage Sampling: Multistage Sampling is a sampling strategy (e.g., gathering

participants for a study) used when conducting studies involving a very large population.

The entire population is divided into naturally-occurring clusters and sub-clusters, from

which the researcher randomly selects the sample.

For example, you want to conduct a survey of salespeople for a nationwide retail chain

with stores all over the country. You could randomly select states, randomly select

counties in each state, randomly select stores in each county, and randomly select

salespeople in those stores

(http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multistage%20Sampling#ixzz2CwN8SuOO)

A multi-stage sample is one in which sampling is done sequentially across two or more

hierarchical levels, such as first at the county level, second at the census track level, third

at the block level, fourth at the household level, and ultimately at the within-household

level. Many probability sampling methods can be classified as single-stage sampling

versus multi-stage sampling. Single-stage samples include simple random sampling,

systematic random sampling, and stratified random sampling. In single-stage samples, the

elements in the target population are assembled into a sampling frame; one of these

techniques is used to directly select a sample of elements In contrast, in multi-stage

sampling, the sample is selected in stages, often taking into account the hierarchical

(nested) structure of the population. The target population of elements is divided into

first-stage units, often referred to as primary sampling units which are the ones sampled

first. The selected first-stage secondary...

Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling.

Advantages

cost and speed that the survey can be done in

convenience of finding the survey sample

normally more accurate than cluster sampling for the same size sample

http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Multistage%20Sampling#ixzz2CwN8SuOO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_sampling


Disadvantages

Is not as accurate as SRS if the sample is the same size

More testing is difficult to do

Using all the sample elements in all the selected clusters may be prohibitively expensive

or not necessary. Under these circumstances, multistage cluster sampling becomes useful.

Instead of using all the elements contained in the selected clusters, the researcher

randomly selects elements from each cluster. Constructing the clusters is the first stage.

Deciding what elements within the cluster to use is the second stage. The technique is

used frequently when a complete list of all members of the population does not exist and

is inappropriate.

g) Independent variable

The independent variable is the characteristic of a psychology experiment that is

manipulated or changed.

For example, in an experiment looking at the effects of studying on test scores, studying

would be the independent variable. Researchers are trying to determine if changes to the

independent variable result in significant changes to the dependent variable (the test

results)

An independent variable is a factor that can be varied or manipulated in an experiment

(e.g. time, temperature, concentration, etc). It is usually what will affect the dependent

variable.

There are two types of independent variables, which are often treated differently in

statistical analyses:

quantitative variables that differ in amounts or scale and can be ordered (e.g.

weight, temperature, time).

qualitative variables which differ in "types" and can not be ordered (e.g. gender,

species, method). By convention when graphing data, the independent variable

is plotted along the horizontal X-axis with the dependent variable on the vertical

Y-axis.

h) Dependent variable


A dependent variable is also known as a "response variable", "regressand", "measured

variable", "observed variable", "responding variable", "explained variable", "outcome

variable", "experimental variable", and "output variable. (By Dodge, Y. (2003) The

Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, OUP. ISBN)

The dependent variable is the variable that is simply measured by the researcher. It is the

variable that reflects the influence of the independent variable. For example, the

dependent variable would be the variable that is influenced by being randomly assigned

to either an experimental condition or a control condition.

A dependent Variable is a factor or phenomenon that is changed by the effect of an

associated factor or phenomenon called the independent variable.

For example, consumption is a dependent variable because it is caused and influenced by

another variable: income. In a mathematical equation or model, the dependent variable is

the variable whose value is to be determined by that equation or model. In an experiment,

it is the variable whose behavior under controlled conditions (that are allowed to change

in an organized manner) is studied.(

http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/dependent-

variable.html#ixzz2CwoqMYEg)

The dependent variable is the variable that is being measured in an experiment. For

example, in a study on the effects of tutoring on test scores, the dependent variable

would be the participants test scores.

In a psychology experiment, researchers are looking at how changes in the

independent variable cause changes in the dependent variable.

Examples of Dependent Variables

Researchers want to discover if listening to classical music helps students earn

better grades on a math exam. In this example, the scores on the math exams are

the dependent variable.

Researchers are interested in seeing how long it takes people to respond to

different sounds. In this example, the length of time it takes participants to respond

to a sound is the dependent variable.

Researchers want to know whether first-born children learn to speak at a younger

age than second-born children. In this example, the dependent variable is the age

at which the child learns to speak.

i) Hypothesis testing

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A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter. This

assumption may or may not be true. Hypothesis testing refers to the formal procedures

used by statisticians to accept or reject statistical hypotheses.

A process by which an analyst tests a statistical hypothesis. The methodology employed

by the analyst depends on the nature of the data used, and the goals of the analysis.

The goal is to either accept or reject the null hypothesis.

( http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hypothesistesting.asp#ixzz2Cwr2gOcF)

Hypothesis testing is a common practice in science that involves conducting tests and

experiments to see if a proposed explanation for an observed phenomenon works in

practice. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for some kind of observed phenomenon,

and is an important part of the scientific method.

Any tentative explanation can be referred to as a hypothesis if it can be submitted to

hypothesis testing. There are, however, a set of guidelines for an explanation to be

considered a true scientific hypothesis. The first major point is testability; a scientific

hypothesis must be able to proceed to the stage of hypothesis testing to be considered a

scientifically legitimate hypothesis. It is generally suggested that a hypothesis be

relatively simple, though this is not always possible. Hypotheses must also be able to

explain the phenomena under any set of conditions; if a hypothesis can only explain a

phenomenon in one set of conditions, it is generally considered unacceptable.

Hypotheses are generally considered useful only if they are likely to improve on the

current body of knowledge on a subject and pave the way for greater knowledge to be

acquired in the future. Also, a hypothesis is generally not acknowledged if it defies other

commonly recognized knowledge. If a hypothesis meets all of these requirements, it will

typically proceed to the hypothesis testing phase.

In hypothesis testing, the testers seek to discover evidence that either validates or

disproves a given hypothesis. Usually, this involves a series of experiments being

conducted in many different conditions. If the hypothesis does not stand up to the tests in

all conditions, something is usually wrong with the hypothesis and a new one must be

formed to take the new information into account. The new hypothesis is submitted to the

same hypothesis testing. If it passes and is not proven wrong, it can eventually be

considered a scientific theory or law, though nothing in science can be proven to be

absolutely true.

One common method of hypothesis testing is known as statistical hypothesis testing, and

typically deals with large quantities of data. Experiments and tests are conducted and the

http://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hypothesistesting.asp#ixzz2Cwr2gOcF

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.htm


data is collected. If the data collected shows that it is unlikely that the results occurred by

chance, it is considered statistically significant and can be used to support a hypothesis.

Hypothesis testing is the use of statistics to determine the probability that a given

hypothesis is true. The usual process of hypothesis testing consists of four steps.

1. Formulate the null hypothesis (commonly, that the observations are the result of

pure chance) and the alternative hypothesis (commonly, that the observations show a

real effect combined with a component of chance variation).

2. Identify a test statistic that can be used to assess the truth of the null hypothesis.

3. Compute the P-value, which is the probability that a test statistic at least as significant

as the one observed would be obtained assuming that the null hypothesis were true. The

smaller the -value, the stronger the evidence against the null hypothesis.

4. Compare the -value to an acceptable significance value (sometimes called an alpha

value). If , that the observed effect is statistically significant, the null hypothesis is

ruled out, and the alternative hypothesis is valid.

j) Cause - effect relations

Cause-effect relation is a relation between cause-concept and effect-concept.

Cause-effect relation is represented in the main memory by cause-effect relation table.

Example:

“Sun” is a cause for “heat”.

“Fire” is a cause for “heat”.

“Sun” is a cause for “sunburn”.

So, there are 3 cause-effect relations in this example:

{Sun->heat}

{Fire->heat}

{Sun->sunburn}


Why are cause-effect relations so important?

Cause-effect relations are so important because:

1) Cause-effect relations help to understand what would happen as a result of current

situation. Cause effect relations help to predict the future of current context.

In order to find out what would happen, strong AI should just find all effect concepts for

specified concepts.

2) Cause-effect relations help to understand what strong AI can do in order to achieve

some goals.

In order to figure out what to do, strong AI should just find cause concepts for the

specified goal-concepts (sub goals).

Example (based on diagram above):

1) Let imagine that strong AI wants to find out what would be the result of the sun. In

order to figure that out, strong AI would take a look into cause-effect relations and find

out that probable results are “Heat” and “SunBurn”.

2) Let’s imagine that current goal of strong AI is “Heat”. In order to achieve this goal

strong AI should follow cause-effect relation in reverse direction and find out that “Fire”

and “Sun” concepts could help to achieve the current goal “Heat”.


Question 3- Answer

Discuss the major types of data collection

Data collection is any process of preparing and collecting data, for example, as part of a

process improvement or similar project. The purpose of data collection is to obtain

information to keep on record, to make decisions about important issues, or to pass

information on to others. Data are primarily collected to provide information regarding a

specific topic

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data

collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results.

Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the one end of

this continuum are quantatative methods and at the other end of the continuum are

Qualitative methods for data collection

(http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/datacoll.htm )

Quantitative and Qualitative Data collection methods

The Quantitative data collection methods, rely on random sampling and structured data

collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories.

They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize.

Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or

being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending on the research

question, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments. If this is not

feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics in

order to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If

the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the

researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.

Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:

Experiments/clinical trials.

Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of

patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).

Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and

telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).

(http://www.achrn.org/quantitative_methods.htm)

http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/datacoll.htm

http://www.achrn.org/quantitative_methods.htm


Interviews

In Quantitative research (survey research),interviews are more structured than in

Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of

questions and nothing more.

Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher to

establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation. These

interviews yield highest response rates in survey research. They also allow the researcher

to clarify ambiguous answers and when appropriate, seek follow-up information.

Disadvantages include impractical when large samples are involved time consuming and

expensive.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the researcher has

ready access to anyone on the planet that has a telephone. Disadvantages are that the

response rate is not as high as the face-to- face interview as but considerably higher than

the mailed questionnaire. The sample may be biased to the extent that people without

phones are part of the population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.

Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal interviewing,

but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-

held computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves time

involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around

hundreds of questionnaires. However, this type of data collection method can be

expensive to set up and requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.

Questionnaires

Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves the

researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to the

questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their

responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks. Majority of the people who

receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do might not be representative of

the originally selected sample.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Web based questionnaires : A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of

Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which you would click

on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in a questionnaire. This type

of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some disadvantages of this method include

the exclusion of people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a computer.

Also the validity of such surveys are in question as people might be in a hurry to


complete it and so might not give accurate responses.

(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)

Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales. These devices help

simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes A checklist is a list of behaviors,

characteristics, or other entities that te researcher is looking for. Either the researcher or

survey participant simply checks whether each item on the list is observed, present or true

or vice versa. A rating scale is more useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a

continuum. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)

Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by

providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed results and

assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being .Furthermore qualitative

methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-based quantitative evaluations by

helping generate evaluation hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires

and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are

characterized by the following attributes:

they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e., researchers

may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining, or dropping

techniques or informants)

they rely more heavily on iterative interviews; respondents may be interviewed

several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify concepts or check the

reliability of data

they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e., researchers

rely on multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results)

generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather

each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be used to seek

general patterns among different studies of the same issue

Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a

great deal of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly,

accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and

other suitable means. The data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of

research.

The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three

broad categories:

in-depth interview

observation methods

document review

http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm


Question 4- Answer

Compare and show appropriateness in use of methods and techniques

of analyzing data

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling data

with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting

decision making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse

techniques under a variety of names, in different business, science, and social science

domains.

Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical

techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data. According to

Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures “provide a way of drawing

inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the phenomenon of interest)

from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data”..

While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many times

analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously collected and

analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze for patterns in

observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye, Robinson, 2004). The

form of the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative approach taken (field study,

ethnography content analysis, oral history, biography, unobtrusive research) and the form

of the data (field notes, documents, audiotape, and videotape).

An essential component of ensuring data integrity is the accurate and appropriate analysis

of research findings. Improper statistical analyses distort scientific findings, mislead

casual readers (Shepard, 2002), and may negatively influence the public perception of

research. Integrity issues are just as relevant to analysis of non-statistical data as well.

Once have your data, you must ANALYZE it. There are many different ways to analyze

data: some are simple and some are complex. Some involve grouping, while others

involve detailed statistical analysis. The most important thing you do is to choose a

method that is in harmony with the parameters you have set and with the kind of data you

have collected.

With the data in a form that is now useful, the researcher can begin the process of

analyzing the data to determine what has been learned. The method used to analyze data

depends on the approach used to collect the information (secondary research, primary


quantitative research or primary qualitative research). For primary research the selection

of method of analysis also depends on the type of research instrument used to collect the

information.

Essentially there are two types of methods of analysis – descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive Data Analysis

Descriptive analysis, as the name implies, is used to describe the results obtained. In most

cases the results are merely used to provide a summary of what has been gathered (e.g.,

how many liked or dislike a product) without making a statement of whether the results

hold up to statistical evaluation. For quantitative data collection the most common

methods used for this basic level of analysis are visual representations, such as charts and

tables, and measures of central tendency including averages (i.e., mean value). For

qualitative data collection, where analysis may consist of the researcher’s own

interpretation of what was learned, the information may be coded or summarized into

grouping categories.

Inferential Data Analysis

While descriptive data analysis can present a picture of the results, to really be useful the

results of research should allow the researcher to accomplish other goals such as:

Using information obtained from a small group (i.e., sample of customers) to

make judgments about a larger group (i.e., all customers)

Comparing groups to see if there is a difference in how they respond to an issue

Forecasting what may happen based on collected information

To move beyond simply describing results requires the use of inferential data analysis

where advanced statistical techniques are used to make judgments (i.e., inferences) about

some issue (e.g., is one type of customer different from another type of customer). Using

inferential data analysis requires a well-structured research plan that follows the scientific

method. Also, most (but not all) inferential data analysis techniques require the use of

quantitative data collection.

As an example of the use of inferential data analysis, a marketer may wish to know if

North American, European and Asian customers differ in how they rate certain issues.

The marketer uses a survey that includes a number of questions asking customers from all

three regions to rate issues on a scale of 1 to 5. If a survey is constructed properly the

marketer can compare each group using statistical software that tests whether differences

exists. This analysis offers much more insight than simply showing how many customers

from each region responded to each question.


Question 5- Answer

Outline the major parts of a Final Research Report. Briefly explain the

content expected to find in each part.

Writing your research paper requires careful forethought. The major parts of a Final

Research Report are listed as:

- Introduction

- Literature review

- Design/ Methods

- Results

- Conclusion

My Outline should include the following ingredients:

1. INTROCUCTION

The main purpose of the INTRODUCTION is to give a description of the problem that

will be addressed. In this section the researcher might discuss the nature of the research,

the purpose of the research, the significance of the research problem, and the research

question(s) to be addressed.

Three essential parts of a good introduction are:

RATIONALE

PURPOSE

RESEARCH QUESTION(S)

a) RATIONALE

Somewhere in the introduction you need to inform the reader of the rationale of your

research. This is a brief explanation of why your research topic is worthy of study and

may make a significant contribution to the body of already existing research

b) PURPOSE


The statement of purpose is not simply a statement of why the research is being done.

(That is what the rationale section is for.) Rather, "purpose" refers to the goal or objective

of your research. The purpose statement should answer questions….

"What are the objectives of my research?" and

"What do I expect to discover or learn from this research?"

c) RESEARCH QUESTION

The introduction usually ends with a research question or questions. This question should

be. . .

Related to your research purpose

Focused

Clear

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

As part of the planning process you should have done a LITERATURE REVIEW,

which is a survey of important articles, books and other sources pertaining to your

research topic. Now, for the second main section of your research report you need to

write a summary of the main studies and research related to your topic. This review of the

professional literature relevant to your research question will help to contextualize, or

frame, your research. It will also give readers the necessary background to understand

your research.

Evaluating other studies:

In a review of the literature, you do not merely summarize the research findings that

others have reported. You must also evaluate and comment on each study's worth and

validity. You may find that some published research is not valid. If it also runs counter to

your hypothesis, you may want to critique it in your review. Don't just ignore it. Tell how

your research will be better/overcome the flaws. Doing this can strengthen the rationale

for conducting your research.

Selecting the studies to include in the review:

You do not need to report on every published study in the area of your research topic.

Choose those studies which are most relevant and most important

Organizing the review:

After you have decided which studies to review, you must decide how to order them. In

making your selection, keep your research question in mind. It should be your most

important guide in determining what other studies are relevant. Many people simple

create a list of one-paragraph summaries in chronological order. This is not always the

most effective way to organize your review. You should consider other ways, such as...


By topic

Problem -> solution

Cause -> effect

Another approach is to organize your review by argument and counter argument. For

example. You may write about those studies that disagree with your hypothesis, and then

discuss those that agree with it. Yet another way to organize the studies in your review is

to group them according to a particular variable, such as age level of the subjects (child

studies, adult studies, etc.) or research method (case studies, experiments, etc.).

The end of the review:

The purpose of your review of the literature was to set the stage for your own research.

Therefore, you should conclude the review with a statement of your hypothesis, or

focused research question. When this is done, you are ready to proceed with part three of

your research report, in which you explain the methods you used.

3. DESIGN & METHOD

The DESIGN & METHOD section of the report is where you explain to your reader

how you went about carrying out your research. You should describe the subjects, the

instruments used, the conditions under which the tests were given, how the tests were

scored, how the results were analyzed, etc.

Remember that this section needs to be very explicit. A good rule of thumb is to provide

enough detail so that others could replicate all the important points of your research.

Failure to provide adequate detail may raise doubts in your readers' minds about your

procedures and findings.

Make sure you are honest and forthright in this section. For example, if you had some

problems with validity, acknowledge the weaknesses in your study so that others can take

them into account when they interpret it (and avoid them if they try to replicate it).

4. RESULTS

n the RESULTS of your report you make sense of what you have found. Here you not

only present your findings but also talk about the possible reasons for those findings.

Also, if your research approach was deductive, then here is where you accept or reject

your hypothesis (based on your findings). In addition, in this section you should use your

knowledge of the subject in order to make intelligent comments about your results.

Make sure your comments are related to (and based on) your research. Do not go beyond

your data. Also, as you report and interpret your findings do not exaggerate or


sensationalize them. Nor should you minimize them. A straightforward matter-of-fact

style is probably best.

5. CONCLUSION

In the CONCLUSION to your report, you do a number of important things:

1. Summarize the main points you made in your introduction and review of the literature

2. Review (very briefly) the research methods and/or design you employed.

3. Repeat (in abbreviated form) your findings.

4. Discuss the broader implications of those findings.

5. Mention the limitations of your research (due to its scope or its weaknesses)

6. Offer suggestions for future research related to yours

ABSTRACT

Some research reports end (or begin) with an abstract. An abstract is a highly abbreviated

(usually 100-200 words) synopsis of your research. It should describe your rationale and

objectives, as well as your methods and findings.

Because of its limited length, an abstract cannot go into detail on any of these topics. Nor

can it report on the limitations of your research or offer suggestions for future research.

For those, readers will have to read the entire report. But, after reading your abstract,

people unfamiliar with your research should know what it is about and whether they want

to read the entire report.

Education

Research meth