Psychology

Unit 2 – Research Methodology

Research Methods (Learning Approach)

Observations They can be carried out without consent, debriefing or right to withdraw, when in a public setting. They involve; gathering

data whilst observing, no manipulation of independent variable. Types of Observations: Structured – ‘Set up’ using one way mirror, staged/ structured situation.- Can be useful because there is a degree of control, meaning it is easier to make cause and effect conclusions.- Can be useful because there is a degree of control, meaning it is easier to make cause and effect conclusions.Naturalistic – Takes place in participant’s natural setting.- These are valid in that they take place in the natural setting of the participant and the observations are of naturally-- These are valid in that they take place in the natural setting of the participant and the observations are of naturally-

occurring behaviour. occurring behaviour. - May be seen as not being reliable as they are hard to replicate. - May be seen as not being reliable as they are hard to replicate. Participant – The observer is also a participant - Observer can share understanding with the group and they can therefore understand the data better. Observer can share understanding with the group and they can therefore understand the data better. - It is hard to make notes or actually observe. It is hard to make notes or actually observe. Non participant - The observer is not part of the situation.- The observer can concentrate on time, sampling and tallying, which could not be achieved when using a participant The observer can concentrate on time, sampling and tallying, which could not be achieved when using a participant

observation. observation. - Lack ecological validity as there wouldn’t be an observer watching the participants in an everyday scenario. Lack ecological validity as there wouldn’t be an observer watching the participants in an everyday scenario. Overt – Participants know they are being observed- The observation would have good ethics The observation would have good ethics - May lack ecological validity as participants wouldn’t be observed in every day settings.May lack ecological validity as participants wouldn’t be observed in every day settings.- May cause demand characteristics in participants.May cause demand characteristics in participants.Covert – Participants don’t know they’re being observed- Have ecological validity as participants wouldn’t be observed in every day settings. Have ecological validity as participants wouldn’t be observed in every day settings. - There may be a lack of control. There may be a lack of control.

Research Methods (Biological)

Twin and Adoption StudiesTwin Studies:

These are used to see if behaviours are shared by those who are genetically similar. Psychologists look at twins to see what they share by looking at concordance rates. This is the likelihood that if one twin has a certain trait, the other twin will also have this trait. For example Gottesman and Shields measured the concordance rates of monozygotic and dizygotic twins that had schizophrenia. Overall, these studies would tend to support the nature theory as they would prove that there is a genetic cause for the trait.

Adoption Studies:

Adopted children share no genes in common with their adoptive families but share the same environment. By studying children who were adopted at birth or very soon after, psychologists can separate genetic and environmental influences on behaviour by looking for similarities in behaviour between the children and their biological and adoptive parents. If there is a similarity in behaviour between the child and their biological parents, then the trait has a genetic cause. If there is a similarity in behaviour between the child and their adoptive parents, then the trait has an environmental cause.

Evaluation:

• Both can help to explain why certain mental illnesses occur, for example twin studies can help to explain that schizophrenia has genetic causes.

• They are both good for testing genetic causes of behaviour as they try to study people with a close genetic link by isolating genetic causes from identical ones.

• A weakness is that adoption agencies try to put twins who are seperated at birth into very similar familes therefore this could account for behavioural traits they share.

• Twins share the same pre natal environment for 9 months which could also account for behavioural similarities.

Animal TestingAnimals are commonly used by psychologists in the biological approach to study behaviour in controlled environments. They use lesion studies to see which part of the brain is causing which types of behaviours.

Evaluation:

• Small animals like rats and mice are often used as they are easier to ‘house’ and monitor during research than humans.

• Large samples can be easily bred in a short period.

• It is possible to cause a level of harm to animals that is not possible with humans, as long as it provides knowledge that will be of benefit to others.

• Can be expensive as only the highest level of care for the animals is acceptable.

• They provide anthropomorphic data as human and animal brains are different.

• Lesion studies are very harmful and painful for the animals to endure therefore their ethics can be questioned.

Brain Scanning Techniques

MRI Scan:

This is a way of seeing a picture of the brain inside the skull, like an X-rays. Allows you to see the structure of the brain and therefore whether there is damage or tumours that need treating. After being placed in a large scanner, the nuclei in hydrogen molecules in the brain emit their own wave at a frequency that the scanner picks up, when they are passed through the body through a magnet.

PET Scan:

A PET scan is a way of seeing a picture of a ‘working’ brain. It shows malfunctions, therefore helping to identify damage or tumours. Tracer is put into the patient and this tracer begins to decay. This tracer emits positrons when it decays. The emitted positrons collide with electrons to form gamma rays which are detected and produce an image of the brain activity.

Research Methods (Psychodynamic)

Case Studies (General)These involve one person or small group of people. Triangulation is used as they gather in-depth detailed,

qualitative data. They use observations, questionnaires, interviews, etc. Case studies gather qualitative data and find out the story of the individual.

Evaluation: • Have ecological validity as they tend to take place in participants everyday environment.• They are useful in that they are often the only way of studying a particular phenomenon or individual.• Cannot be generalised as the situation is very unique and particular. • They are also not repeatable as the situation and participants and situation tends to be very unique.

Case Study (Freud Style)These were used to uncover unconscious wishes and desires. In order to do this Freud used; free association,

dream analysis and slips of the tongue. Evaluation:• They have wide applications and have been particularly useful for helping to treat mental illnesses. • They use special means to uncover unconscious thoughts that cannot otherwise be accessed. • They can be very time consuming as the analyst has to do lots of interpretation. • Concepts such as the unconscious mind cannot be measured and are hard to test in a specific way.

Cross Sectional StudiesData gathered once, one moment in time (snap shot) from different groups. One group is compared with

another on the same task. For example language development in children of different ages. • Gather immediate results. Useful because they are easier to carry out in practice. • They are more ethical as they don’t impose on participants as much as longitudinal studies do• May be participant variables as different participants are used in each condition. • There are many different variables in the several situations, which may be hard to control.

Longitudinal Studies:Similar to case studies, uses experiments, surveys and observations. Same participants are used over a long

time (hence the name).• Useful for looking at developmental trends. • Have ecological validity as they usually take place in participants natural setting. • Participants may suffer from order effects as the study lasts for a long time. • Can be very time consuming and potentially expensive for researchers.

Correlation Designs: Correlation design and self report data are a good way of testing Freud's theories. Self report data is that

participants provide. Correlation designs have two variables but both are important as there is not an independent variable and a dependent variable – both are measured. It is not the difference between the variables which is measured but relationship between them.

• There is little manipulation of variables, making the experiment quite straight forward and therefore more convenient and quick.

• They show relationships that might not be expected and so can be used to point towards new research areas.

• They tend to lack ecological validity as one of the variables is often operationalised making it artificial. • The findings only show a relationship between those sets of data, not a definite connection.