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mastering the world ofpsychology
CHAPTER
fifth edition
Copyright © 2014, © 2011, © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved
Introduction to Psychology
1
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning Objectives
1.1 How will the SQ3R method help you master psychology?
1.2 Why do psychologists use the scientific method?
1.3 What are the goals of psychology?1.4 What did the early psychologists contribute to
the field?1.5 What are the major schools of thought in
psychology?1.6 What are the seven contemporary
psychological perspectives?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning Objectives
1.7 What specialty areas exist in psychology?1.8 How do psychologists evaluate theories?1.9 How will critical thinking help you evaluate
research?1.10 What are the pros and cons of observational
and case studies?1.11 How do researchers design useful surveys?1.12 What are the strengths and weaknesses of
the correlational method?1.13 How do researchers use experiments to test
causal hypotheses?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Learning Objectives
1.14 What are the limitations of the experimental method?
1.15 How can participants’ characteristics influence a study’s usefulness?
1.16 How do researchers protect human participants’ and animals’ rights?
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Overview
• Introduction to Mastering the World of Psychology
• Psychology Then and Now• Thinking about Theories and Research• Descriptive Research Methods• The Experimental Method• Research Participants
Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Studying Psychology:Some Tricks of the Trade
• Maximize learning with the 5 steps of the SQ3R method.1. Survey2. Question3. Read4. Recite5. Review I/Review II
LO 1.1
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
More Tips for Effective Studying
• Establish a quiet place, free of distractions, where you do nothing but study.
• Schedule your study time.• Set specific goals each week.• Take an active role in the learning process.• Sleeping immediately after you study will
help you retain more of what you have learned.
LO 1.1
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Is Psychology a Science?
• Psychology is a science.– The scientific study of behavior and
mental processes– Uses the scientific method to acquire
knowledge– Scientific method: orderly, systematic
procedures researchers follow
LO 1.2
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Steps of the Scientific Method
• Observe and theorize.• Formulate a hypothesis.
– Specific prediction that can be tested empirically with data
• Design the study.• Collect data.• Apply results to the hypothesis.
– Replication of the study is important.
LO 1.2
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Is Psychology a Science?
• Theory – A general principle or set of principles
proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related.
• Hypothesis– A testable prediction about the
conditions under which a particular behavior or mental process may occur.
LO 1.2
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 1.1 The Scientific MethodThese are the steps involved in the scientific method.
LO 1.2
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Summarize it: The Goals of Psychology
LO 1.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Goals of Psychology
• Description– Identifying and classifying behaviors
and mental processes as accurately as possible
• Explanation– Proposing reasons for behaviors and
mental processes
LO 1.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Goals of Psychology
• Prediction– Offering predictions (or hypotheses)
about how a given condition or set of conditions will affect behaviors and mental processes
• Influence– Using the results of research to solve
practical problems that involve behavior and mental processes
LO 1.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Goals of Psychology
• Basic Research – Seeks new knowledge– Advances general scientific
understanding• Applied Research
– Solves practical problems– Improves the quality of life
LO 1.3
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Exploring Psychology’s Roots
• Psychology’s roots can be traced to the beginning of recorded history.
• Psychology began as a formal academic discipline in the 1800s.
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Exploring Psychology’s RootsWilhelm Wundt
• Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)– Considered the “father” of psychology– Studied cultural and social influences on
human thought– Established the first psychological
laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany, 1879
– Developed introspection Analysis of basic elements of conscious
mental experience
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Exploring Psychology’s RootsTitchener
• Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927)– Studied under Wundt – Established a psychological laboratory
at Cornell University– Named his school of thought
“structuralism”
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Exploring Psychology’s RootsTitchener
• Structuralism– Aimed at analyzing the basic elements,
or structure, of conscious mental experience
– Criticized for its primary method, introspection considered not objective
– Established psychology as a science
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Exploring Psychology’s RootsFunctionalism
• Functionalism– how humans and animals use mental
processes to adapt to their environment• William James (1842–1910)
– main advocate of functionalism– clarified definition of mental processes
fluid have continuity not the rigid, fixed structures suggested
by the Structuralists
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Exploring Psychology’s RootsFunctionalism
• Broadened the scope of psychology – study of behavior as well as mental
processes• Allowed for the study of children,
animals, and the mentally impaired
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Exploring Psychology’s RootsFunctionalism
• Focused on more practical uses of psychology– encouraged study of educational
practices, individual differences, and adaptation in the workplace
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Current Trends– More women than men obtain degrees
in psychology.– Minority representation is growing.
A gap between the proportion of minorities in the US population and the proportion represented in professional psychology persists.
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Current Trends– Minority representation is growing.
The APA has established a program encouraging minority enrollment in graduate programs in psychology.
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Christine Ladd-Franklin – Completed her PhD in the mid-1880s at
Johns Hopkins Did not receive her degree until 1926
– Formulated a theory of color vision
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Mary Whiton Calkins – Completed the requirements for a
doctorate at Harvard denied degree due to being female
– Established psychology laboratory at Wellesley College
– Developed paired associates test
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Margaret Floy Washburn – Received PhD from Cornell University– Wrote influential books
The Animal Mind (1908) Movement and Mental Imagery (1916)
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Francis Cecil Sumner – First African American to earn a PhD in
psychology, 1920– Chaired psychology department at
Howard University
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Albert Sidney Beckham – established the first psychological
laboratory at a black institution of higher learning, Howard University
– conducted important studies on intelligence and how it related to occupational fields
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Kenneth Clark– received national recognition for
writings on the harmful effects of racial segregation
– His writing impacted the Supreme Court rulings that declared national segregation unconstitutional.
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Changing Face of Psychology
• Jorge Sanchez– Hispanic-American psychologist– Studied bias in intelligence testing
during the 1930s Cultural and language differences affect
the performance of Hispanic students taking American IQ tests.
LO 1.4
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology
• Behaviorism• Psychoanalytic Psychology• Humanistic Psychology• Positive Psychology• Cognitive Psychology• Evolutionary Psychology• Biological (Physiological) Psychology• The Sociocultural Approach
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Behaviorism
• Named by John Watson• Redefined psychology as “the science
of behavior”• Observable, measurable behavior is the
only appropriate subject matter.• Environment is the key determinant of
behavior.• Most influential school of thought until
the 1960s
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Behaviorism
• Skinner’s Key Points– Mind, consciousness, and feelings are
neither objective nor measurable. not appropriate subject matter for
psychology
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Behaviorism
• Skinner’s Key Points– operant conditioning
emphasizes the importance of reinforcement in learning, shaping, and maintaining behavior
– Behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated.
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Psychoanalysis
• Personality theory developed by Sigmund Freud
• Psychoanalysis– treatment method for psychological
disorders• Psychoanalytic Theory
– individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior as determined primarily by the unconscious
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Psychoanalysis
• Freud’s Followers– Jung, Adler, and Horney– Disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on
sexual and aggressive impulses– referred to as “neoanalysts”
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Humanistic Psychology
• Humans have the capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health.
• Positive View of Human Nature– People are innately good.– Humans possess free will.
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Humanistic Psychology
• Key Contributors:– Abraham Maslow
Theory of motivation Emphasizes hierarchy of needs
– Carl Rogers Client-centered therapy
– Client directs a discussion on his or her own view of the problem.
– The therapist’s analysis is less the focus of therapy.
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Positive Psychology
• Martin Seligman– Positive psychology
The scientific study of psychological characteristics that enable individuals and communities to thrive in the face of adversity.
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Cognitive Psychology
• Grew in response to strict behaviorism• Saw humans as:
– Not passive recipients pushed and pulled by environmental forces
– Active participants who seek out experiences, who alter and shape their experiences
– Using mental processes to transform information in the course of their own cognitive development
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Cognitive Psychology
• Ideas grew from gestalt psychology and information-processing theory.– Gestalt Psychology
The mind interprets events rather than simply reacting to them.
– Information-Processing Theory The brain processes information in
sequential steps Similar to a computer’s serial processing
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Evolutionary Psychology
• Investigates: – Human behaviors necessary for survival– How behaviors adapted in the face of
environmental pressures over the course of evolution
• Draws heavily on Darwin’s theory
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Biological (Physiological) Psychology• Often confused with evolutionary
psychology– Evolutionary psychology focuses on
universal traits– Biological psychology focuses on
individual differences
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:Biological (Physiological) Psychology• Studies structures of the brain,
neurotransmitters, hormones, effects of heredity
• Biological psychologists often work in neuroscience– Neuroscience includes biology,
biochemistry, and medicine in understanding functions of the nervous system
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Schools of Thought in Psychology:The Sociocultural Approach
• How background and cultural experiences affect behavior and mental processes– Important to understand these factors
when interpreting the behavior of others– Often studied within the broader context
of a systems perspective
LO 1.5
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Contemporary Psychological Perspectives
• Many psychologists take an eclectic position– Combination of approaches to explain a
particular behavior• Adopting multiple perspectives allows
psychologists to:– Devise more complex theories and
studies– Improve treatment strategies
LO 1.6
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Contemporary Psychological Perspectives
• Behavioral perspective– Environmental factors
• Psychoanalytic perspective– Emotions, unconscious motivations,
early childhood experiences• Humanistic perspective
– Subjective experiences, intrinsic motivation to achieve self-actualization
Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
LO 1.6
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Contemporary Psychological Perspectives
• Cognitive perspective– Mental processes
• Evolutionary perspective– Inherited traits that enhance
adaptability• Biological perspective
– Biological structures, processes, heredity
Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
LO 1.6
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Contemporary Psychological Perspectives
• Sociocultural perspective– Social and cultural variables
Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
LO 1.6
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Summarize It: Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Specialties in Psychology
• Clinical Psychologists – Diagnose and treat mental and
behavioral disorders • School Psychologists
– Diagnose and treat learning and behavioral problems interfering with learning
LO 1.7
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Specialties in Psychology
• Forensic Psychologists– Work with issues involving psychology
and law• Counseling Psychologists
– Work with adjustment problem that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical psychologists
LO 1.7
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Specialties in Psychology
• Physiological Psychologists– Study the relationship between
physiological processes and behavior• Experimental Psychologists
– Conduct research in memory, sensation, perception, motivation, and emotion
LO 1.7
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Specialties in Psychology
• Developmental Psychologists– Study change throughout the life span
• Educational Psychologists– Specialize in the study of teaching and
learning
LO 1.7
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Specialties in Psychology
• Social Psychologists– Investigate individual feelings, thoughts,
and behavior in a social setting—in the presence of others
• Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologists– Study the relationships between people
and their work environments
LO 1.7
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Theories
• Theories help psychologists achieve the goal of prediction.– Generate testable hypotheses
• Theories lead to the development of solutions for real-world problems.
• Theories possesses heuristic value.– Make people think – Spur curiosity and creativity
LO 1.8
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Research
• What Critical Thinking Accomplishes– Objectively evaluates claims,
propositions, and conclusions – Determines whether they follow
logically from the evidence presented
LO 1.9
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Research
• Characteristics of Critical Thought– Independent thinking
Not automatically accepting and believing what we read or hear
– Suspension of judgment Gathering relevant and up-to-date
information on all sides of an issue before taking a position
LO 1.9
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Thinking about Theories and Research: Evaluating Research
• Characteristics of Critical Thought– Willingness to modify or abandon prior
judgments Evaluating new evidence, even when it
contradicts preexisting beliefs
LO 1.9
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Descriptive Research Methods
• These methods yield descriptions of behavior and include:– Naturalistic and laboratory observation– Case study– Survey research– Correlational method
LO 1.10
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Descriptive Research Methods
• Naturalistic Observation– Observation of behavior in its natural
setting– No attempt to influence behavior
• Laboratory Observation– Studies behavior in a laboratory setting– Allows more control and more precise
measurement of responses
LO 1.10
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Descriptive Research Methods: Case Study
– Studies a single individual or small number of persons in depth
– Advantages– Appropriate for studying rare
psychological disorders or brain damage• Disadvantages
– Cannot identify the cause of behavior– Potential for bias– Results can lack generalizability
LO 1.10
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys
• Interviews and/or questionnaires – Gather information about the attitudes,
beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people
– Population The entire group of interest to
researchers to which they wish to generalize their findings; the group from which a sample is selected.
LO 1.11
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Descriptive Research Methods: Surveys
• Interviews and/or questionnaires – Sample
A part of a population that is studied to reach conclusions about the entire population.
• Studies a representative sample– A sample that mirrors the population of
interest; it includes important subgroups in the same proportions as they are found in that population.
LO 1.11
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation
• Measures degree of a relationship between two characteristics, events, or behaviors– Correlation Coefficient
A numerical value that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables; ranges from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to −1.00 (a perfect negative correlation).
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation
• Three types:– Negative correlation– Positive correlation– No correlation
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 1.2 Positive and Negative CorrelationsHere are two graphs showing positive and negative correlations. (a) When positively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points fall along a line that rises from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent studying and grades on an exam. As study time goes up, exam grades go up as well. (b) When negatively correlated scores on two variables are graphed, the points follow a line that declines from left to right. This graph might represent two variables such as amount of time spent watching television and grades on an exam. As TV time goes up, grades go down.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Descriptive Research Methods: Correlation
• Advantages– Information about one variable can be
used to predict the other.• Disadvantages
– Cannot be used to support the conclusion that one variable causes the other
LO 1.12
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 1.3 Correlation Does Not Prove CausationA correlation between two variables does not prove that a cause–effect relationship exists between them. There is a correlation between stress and illness, but that does not mean that stress necessarily causes illness. Both stress and illness may result from another factor, such as poverty or poor general health.
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Experiments and Hypothesis Testing• Can identify cause-effect relationships• Designed to assess causal hypotheses
– Predictions about a cause–effect relationship between two or more variables
LO 1.13
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Independent and Dependent Variables• Independent Variable
– A factor or condition deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition
• Dependent Variable– A factor or condition measured to
determine the impact of the experimental manipulation
LO 1.13
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Figure 1.5 The Mean Shock intensity Chosen by Provoked and unprovoked ParticipantsIn the Lang experiment, participants who thought they were drinking alcohol chose to give significantly stronger shocks, whether provoked or not, than those who believed they were drinking only tonic. Source: Data from Lang et al. (1995)
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Experimental and Control Groups• Experimental Group
– Exposed to the independent variable• Control Group
– Exposed to the same experimental environment but not given the independent variable
LO 1.13
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Experimental and Control Groups• Comparing Experimental and Control
Groups– Researchers judge effects of the
independent variable compared to outcomes that occur naturally
LO 1.13
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Limitations
• Confounding Variables– Factors other than the independent
variable that can affect results• Selection Bias
– Assignment to groups such that systematic differences between groups are present at the beginning of an experiment
LO 1.14
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Limitations
• Random Assignment– The process of selecting participants for
experimental and control groups by using a chance procedure to guarantee that each participant has an equal probability of being assigned to any of the groups; a control for selection bias.
LO 1.14
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Limitations
• Placebo Effect– Response to a treatment caused by a
person’s expectations, not the treatment
• Experimenter Bias– A researcher’s expectations influence
the experiment’s results
LO 1.14
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Limitations
• These effects can be controlled by using the double-blind technique.– Neither the experimenter nor
participants know who is in the experimental or control groups
LO 1.14
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
The Experimental Method: Limitations
• Quasi-experiments – Comparisons of groups that differ in
exposure to a variable of interest that cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons
• Cross-cultural research – Comparisons of mental processes and
behaviors among humans living in different cultures
LO 1.14
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Summarize It: Research Methods In Psychology
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Participant-Related Bias in Psychological Research
• APA requires:– Researchers must ensure that
participants are representative of the population that study’s results will be generalized.
– Research must include detailed information about participant characteristics.
LO 1.15
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Types of Participant-Related Bias
• Whites Overrepresented – Subjects are often drawn from college
populations more populated with whites.
• Failure to Include Socioeconomic Status– Lacking in much of the research
literature comparing white Americans and African Americans
LO 1.15
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Types of Participant-Related Bias
• Gender Bias– Researchers tend to specify the gender
of the sample clearly when subjects are female, but less often when the sample is exclusively male.
• Ageism– Often apparent in the language used in
psychological research with older adults
LO 1.15
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights
• Legality– Research must conform to applicable
federal, state, and local laws and regulations.
• Institutional Approval– Researchers must obtain approval from
the institution involved in the study.
LO 1.16
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights
• Informed Consent– Participants must be informed of the
purpose of the study and its potential for harming them.
• Deception– Deception is ethical when it is necessary
to acquire data.
LO 1.16
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights
• Debriefing– Participants are informed about any
deception when the study is complete.• Clients, Patients, Students, and
Subordinates– Participants under another’s authority
(i.e., employees) must be assured that participation will not damage the participants.
LO 1.16
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights
• Payment for Participation– Participants can be paid.– Must be informed about what is
expected in return for payment• Publication
– Report findings in an appropriate forum, such as a scientific journal
LO 1.16
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights
• Legality– Animal research must follow all relevant
federal, state, and local laws.• Supervision by Experienced Personnel
– Use of animals must be supervised by people trained in animal care.
LO 1.16
Mastering the World of Psychology, Fifth EditionSamuel Wood | Ellen Green Wood | Denise Boyd
Protecting Human Participants’ and Animals’ Rights
• Minimization of Discomfort– Researchers are ethically bound to
minimize any discomfort to research animals.
LO 1.16