Paperback: 182 pagesPublisher: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (February 4, 2009)Language: EnglishISBN-10: 1440488185ISBN-13: 978-1440488184Product Dimensions: 10 x 7 x 0.4 inchesHistory of Science and the Teaching of Science Concepts: Designing Instructional e-Material, Role-plays and Educational Wiki Pages for Teachers’ e-Training

1

Fanny Seroglou, Paris Papadopoulos and Vassilis Koulountzos

ATLAS Research Group, School of Primary Education, Faculty of Education, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124 Thessaloniki, Greece, seroglou@eled.auth.gr, http://atlaswiki.wetpaint.comAbstractIn this paper we present some aspects concerning the multiple contribution of history of science to the teaching of science concepts. History of science provides a dynamic background to present and elaborate science concepts in the classroom as well as rich resources for the design of instructional e-material and activities to teach science in face-to-face or by distance learning interactions. In our case, we have designed instructional e-material, activities that include narratives and role-plays, educational wiki pages with short films, photographs, worksheets, guidelines for the teacher, teaching strategies, etc. and incorporated them in a web-based learning environment for teacher e-training in science education. The SHINE research model has been used for the design and development of both the instructional e-material and the activities. SHINE is an 8 stages research model focusing on the interaction between history of science and science education. This paper is a SHINE case study in electromagnetism.

KeywordsHistory of science, teaching of science concepts, instructional e-material, role-plays, educational wiki, teachers’ e-training, electromagnetism.

History of science and the teaching of science concepts

Nowadays, in the context of scientific literacy we seem to shift from cognitive to meta-cognitive, social and emotional learning. There is a current demand for instructional material and teaching methods in order to support the development of cognitive, meta-cognitive, social and emotional skills both for the classroom as well as for teacher training. Therefore, the target skills developed in schools and teacher-training courses need to be reassessed, as do the ways in which students are expected to learn and teachers’ to be trained (Seroglou 2006).

When teaching science, the motivation of the learners is always a challenge: How to motivate students, as well as pre- and in-service teachers, to take an active interest in abstract and complex “theoretical” issues. Students and teachers find the various science concepts presented in curricula to be “too difficult” and, in their eyes, “not at all interesting” (especially when compared with, e.g., ethics or aesthetics courses). Especially in the case of pre- and in-service teachers, although they teach science, they often present low self-esteem concerning their skills in describing, discussing and elaborating science concepts, theories and phenomena in the classroom (Guskey 1988, Allinder 1994, Connor 2007).

In the ATLAS Research Group (ATLAS being an acronym for: A Teaching and Learning Approach for Science), we are mostly interested in designing, applying and evaluating 2

instructional material and teaching strategies, both for the classroom and for teacher-training, that encourage scientific literacy for all. In our attempt, history of science is highly contributing to the teaching of science concepts. We design instructional material, experiments, activities with narratives and role-plays inspired by history of science. History of science provides a dynamic background to present and elaborate science concepts in the classroom as well as rich resources for the design of instructional e-material and activities to teach science in face-to-face or by distance learning interactions (Seroglou et al 2008).

Science activities informed by history of science seem to the learners less complicated and friendlier than general descriptions of scientific theories. History of science offers also the opportunity to articulate the nature of science concepts and theories more clearly, and have the added bonus of being more “personal” and relatable. History of science creates the background to integrate knowledge, to set the scientific events in context and facilitate learners to encounter science knowledge in a more holistic context. History of science may help look into the events which have shaped modern traditions showing “why science is the way it is”.

History of science when used as a resource in the design of classroom activities provides a dynamic environment for restructuring the science stories and bringing forward the elements of those stories that are really important and interesting for pre- and in-service teachers. This image of science concepts and theories and of scientists interconnected to their cultural and social background offers to teachers a friendly, stimulating and multi-levelled context for science learning and teaching (Seroglou et al 2008).

The SHINE research model

The name SHINE is an acronym of the keywords ‘Science’, ‘History’, Interaction’ and ‘Education’. The SHINE research model (Seroglou & Koumaras 2003) consists of 8 stages focusing on the interaction between history of science and science education (figure 1).

3

Figure 1: The SHINE research model

The eight steps of SHINE are the following:

Step 1: First, research on scientists’ ideas in the history of science is carried out. Research is focused on those areas where early scientific ideas were different from the currently accepted ones.

Step 2: Data coming from the study of the history of science provide a focus for the research on learners’ ideas.

Step 3: Research on learners’ ideas is carried out (questionnaire distribution, individual in-depth interviews).

Step 4: A comparative analysis of the data and results coming from research Steps 1 and 3 provides an answer whether research into the history of science (and especially in those areas where early scientific ideas were distinct from current ones) indicate a clear focus for the research on learners’ ideas.

Step 5: Research on the work of scientists that promoted the change of scientific ideas and led to the currently accepted ones (as presented in textbooks) is carried out.

Step 6: Data coming from Step 5 provides fruitful information for instructional material design and leads to the design of a set of tasks.Step 7: Research on the evaluation of the designed tasks in promoting learner’s conceptual change is carried out (individual investigation, interviews etc.). Learners are encouraged to reconsider their initial ideas, to change those ideas that are not compatible to the current scientific theory and confirm the ideas that are in agreement with the current scientific theory.

Step 8: Finally, a comparative analysis of the data and results coming from research Steps 7 and 5 provides an answer whether certain tasks inspired by the work of scientists in the past (that promoted the change of scientific ideas in the history of science) help learners overcome their alternative ideas and encourage conceptual change.

A SHINE case study in electromagnetism

4

A SHINE case study in electromagnetism has been carried out. The design of the developed instructional e-material is based on the study of the works of Gardano, Gilbert and Faraday (Seroglou et al 1998, Seroglou & Koumaras 2003). In this case, in Step 1 of the SHINE research model, the study of the history of electromagnetism reveals that:

a) From the age Thales up to the 16th century electrostatic and magnetic phenomena were unified in the context of a ‘magic’ idea and were considered as being of the same nature.

b) From the 17th century up to 1830, scientists dealt with the question of whether ‘electricities’ derived from different sources (static electricity, animal electricity, voltaic electricity, magneto-electricity and thermo-electricity) were of the same nature (Wolf 1952, Whittaker 1958). Research in the following three steps verified similar ideas carried out by learners as well (Seroglou et al 1998, Seroglou & Koumaras 2003).

In Step 5, the study of the history of electromagnetism reveals that:a) The differences between electrostatic and magnetic phenomena were pointed out for the first time in the 16th century by Gardano and Gilbert which allowed to establish two different fields of science: electrostatics and magnetism (Cajori 1962).b) Between 1832-1833, Faraday successfully carried out a number of experiments and showed that different kinds of ‘electricities’ can produce the same effects (Faraday, 1839).In the following three steps of the research model instructional material based on the history of science has been developed and evaluated.

Experiments inspired by the history of science

The SHINE research model in this case led to the design of two sets of tasks. The first set, based on the experiments of Gardano and Gilbert addresses the differentiation between electrostatic and magnetic phenomena. In these tasks, learners are provided with the opportunity to observe the similarities and differences between the two kinds of phenomena, as listed by Gardano and Gilbert. The designed tasks with the simple step-by-step experiments based on the work of Gardano and Gilbert have been filmed and are presented in the web-based learning environment developed. For example, in order to differentiate electrostatic and magnetic attractions a series of videos with a magnet and a plastic strip charged by friction have been developed showing that:

a) A magnet attracts iron fillings. A picture of this video is shown in Picture 1.

5

Picture 1

b) A plastic strip charged by friction also attracts iron fillings. A picture of this video is shown in Picture 2.

Picture 2

c) But a magnet does not attract small pieces of paper. A picture of this video is shown in Picture 3.

6

Picture 3

d) Although a plastic strip charged by friction attracts small pieces of paper. A picture of this video is shown in Picture 4.

Picture 4

In the same line of thought, tasks inspired by Faradays work were designed, aiming at the connection between electrostatic and electrodynamic phenomena. In these tasks, learners have the opportunity to observe the same electric effects produced either by friction or by the use of a battery or a high-voltage power supply. For example, in this case we have produced a video showing that a fluorescent strip light lights up when connected to the lighting circuit, but also gives out light visible in a dark room, when it is rubbed with a piece of woolen cloth or a piece of fur.

Designing and performing role-plays based on the history of science

The designed tasks presented above focus on the cognitive dimension of learning and especially on differentiating electrostatic and magnetic attractions and relating electrostatic phenomena and phenomena of the electric current. To move further, an activity has been developed using a short film about the life and work of Faraday and role-plays inspired by the film. This time the instructional focus shifted to the meta-cognitive dimension of teaching and learning science. This activity mainly aimed to relate scientists’ work in electromagnetism with the social and cultural context in which the theories of electromagnetism were developed. The following two pictures come from the film (Picture 5) and from a role play performed by in-service teachers (Picture 6).

7

Picture 5

Picture 6

Drama approaches and especially role-plays help students and teachers to formulate ideas and stimulate debate by offering useful opportunities for speculation and hypothesis. In our case, presenting in a short film Faraday’s theory of electromagnetism where his conflict with Davy, his personal scientific and social background is described and dramatizing these situations in role-plays provides a new perspective to learning about electromagnetism. Stories in general have great potential for providing appealing organizational formats for a variety of science learners. These videos and role-plays can both illustrate the scientist’s ideas and perceptions but also raise the student’s interests in and enjoyment of the material. Both the films and the role-plays provide a dynamic environment for restructuring the science stories and bringing forward the elements of those stories that are really important and interesting for pre- and in-service teachers. This image of science concepts and theories and of scientists interconnected to their cultural 8

and social background offers to teachers a friendly, stimulating and multi-levelled context for science learning and teaching.

An application of the above activity was carried out in a face-to-face postgraduate course for in-service teachers and the two interesting role plays that they developed and performed have been videotaped and exist as short movies in the web-based learning environment developed. Pre- and in-service teachers who attended the face-to-face workshops:a) watched the filmb) discussed and commented on the way the science concepts, the scientist’s work, the contemporary social and cultural background, as well as the implied values and attitudes have been presented in the film and elaborated by the director, the narrator and the specialists (historians and philosophers of science) who contributed in the filmc) developed their own role-plays inspired by the filmd) performed the developed role-playse) discussed on the way science concepts, the scientist’s work, the contemporary social and cultural background, as well as the implied values and attitudes presented in the performed role-plays.

The performed role-plays were video-taped, studied, analysed and also used as short movies in new workshops for pre- and in-service teachers’ professional development courses that were either face-to-face or by distance.

Role-playing is not the same as performing a theatrical play, even though the students do take on new identities. It is closer to group discussion than to theatre. Role-play is used when we want to have an idea of ‘what it is like to be’ in a certain situation. Role-play is a product of “watch”, “design”, “simulation” and “play”. In science education role-play may be seen as an interaction between these four components (see Figure 2 that follows). Role-play in science teaching, when properly designed, has a potential to elucidate scientific concepts (McSharry & Jones 2000).

Increasing learners participation and learning

9

Watch School

Design School

SimulationSchool Science

Play

VIDEO

ROLE-PLAY

Figure 2: Role-play as the medium of interactive learning

In our case, there have been many benefits in using role-playing activities about the life and work of Faraday. The teaching of science concepts has been enriched by the contemporary social and cultural context. Science concepts become more accessible, understandable, memorable and exciting. Role-plays assist in motivating the learners to take an active interest since they concern cultural aspects in which pre- and in-service teachers have a predisposed interest. Nevertheless, demanding science content has been presented in the context of a familiar, non-threatening setting and has become to the learners’ eyes less frightening, unusual or alien.

During the activity, pre- and in service- teachers, as they watched the short film about Faraday and later on performed their role-plays, started to comment that this activity helped them relate science concept to the overall image of science and to recognize science as a social activity. They also suggested that this “historical approach to science teaching could enrich current science curricula”. They admitted that many times they feel terrified, helpless and ineffective towards teaching science. Role-plays based on history of science makes science teaching to seem closer to teachers’ interests and within their abilities and efficacy.

Some first results of the data analysis indicate that the use of role-plays for teaching science made a valuable contribution to the teachers’ understanding of the nature of science. In particular there is a significant shift towards an appreciation of the interactive nature of experiment and theory. The analysis results indicate that the participants made use of the process of idealization. Teachers also approached the complicated relationship between theory and experiment balancing between rational conviction and persuasion in the context of science.

An effect has also been recorded on a double aspect of language development (linguistic intelligence): narrative comprehension and narrative production. During the activity, pre- and in-service teachers have been fully engaged and actively involved in the learning experience, increasing their motivation and improved their interpersonal, intrapersonal and bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence. The developed activity has been an example of social interaction (with adults and people of the same age group) having an important effect on conceptual change and learning. Nevertheless, results concerning the bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence indicate the interrelation between body language, acting techniques and the ability to observe carefully and then recreate scenes in detail (Gardner 1993).

10

Learning outcome Learning outcome

Designing web-pages for an educational wiki

The instructional e-material, the experiments, the role-plays, the short movies as well as the teaching strategies described above were incorporated in an educational wiki. Our aim was to communicate the developed e-material and activities in a web-based learning environment structured in the context of active pedagogical principals.

After the fast development of web-based learning environments in the first years where the main focus was on technology, nowadays becomes clearer to the researchers’ and developers’ eyes that the need of certain pedagogical principles is crucial. The use of web-based environments in education may play an important role in facilitating learning under certain circumstances which allow technology to bring forward educational improvement and innovation. Technology now gains its primal role as the ‘medium’ for the learning interaction, and loses its mystical role of the focus theme in communication. The demystification of technology opens the way towards effective web-based learning environments providing fruitful feedback on the learning procedure (Koulountzos & Seroglou 2007a).

Web-based learning environments consist of a variety of web-based toolkits that facilitate learning. They provide and embody teaching and learning tools and materials such as electronic communication (chat rooms, discussion groups, bulletin boards), on line group work using directly connected learning materials, links with remote information sources, work plans, assessment tools and an administration area (accessible only to supervisors) (INSPIRAL 2001).

Wikis are fully editable websites. Users can visit, read, re-organize and update the structure and content (text, pictures, videos) of a wiki as they see it. This functionality is called open editing (Leuf & Cunningham, 2001). A functional and well growing wiki-based learning environment should encourage the creation of a climate of commitment and trust between his members: the facilitators and the pre and in-service teachers.

In our case there was a need for such a web-based learning environment for supporting teachers (individually and in groups) to create, develop and construct knowledge, as well as for encouraging teamwork, creative problem solving and introducing them to the scientific method through a knowledge seeking process. This environment also includes collaborative learning tools to help the supporting group (designers, facilitators) and the teachers involved in this e-training course to save, organize and share with others documents, files, folders, sites, pictures, notes, tools to create a database for common use, as well as tools to create a chat and a digital product space - pictures, documents, music, video (Koulountzos & Seroglou 2007a).

Our design aims to a user-centered, trainee-centered, interactive, collective, collaborative structure for the atlaswiki learning environment that allows the individual to collect organize and re-contextualize knowledge (http://atlaswiki.wetpaint.com). A double shift of roles is expected to take place during the above interaction: the teacher is there not to 11

teach but to advise, encourage and facilitate while the learner participates and re-structures the teaching and learning procedure. A balance between pedagogical, technical and structural aspects is needed for a successful wiki-based learning environment, that won’t replace the traditional educational forms and techniques but will foster teaching and learning (Koulountzos & Seroglou 2007a).

The instructional e-material incorporated in the web-pages designed and developed in the context of atlaswiki for pre and in-service teacher e-training in electromagnetism consists of short films, photographs, worksheets, guidelines for the teacher, teaching strategies, etc. All the short films with the designed tasks supporting the teaching of electromagnetism, have been incorporated in the web-based learning environment aiming to help teachers themselves initially to get familiar with some electromagnetic concepts and phenomena and at a second level to be able to teach those either with the use of the developed videos or by actually recreating and performing the designed tasks in the classroom. Also the short films with the videotaped role-plays are included in the atlaswiki learning environment offering to the pre- and in-service teachers:

a) An example of the kind of role-plays that they may also develop in the classroom.b) A fruitful source for discussion and evaluation about the social and cultural

impact on scientist work (Koulountzos et al 2007).

Teachers’ e-training in electromagnetism

Our goal has been to achieve a user friendly communication environment for the teachers, allowing them to present their ideas, to improve their self esteem, to take an active part in this web-based learning environment, to use and develop e-material. We wanted the environment to be comfortable, safe and flexible in order to encourage discussions concerning feelings, fears and insecurities about using technology and teaching science. We anticipated a spread of information, collaboration, contribution, codependence and team spirit to occur, to achieve the knowledge and information transformation from single-dimensional and limited to multi-dimensional and beyond time and space (Koulountzos & Seroglou 2007b).

In atlaswiki teachers participating in the e-training course had two different writing modes, the document mode and the thread mode. In document mode pre- and in-service teachers created collaborative documents enriched with multimedia materials as pictures, videos etc. All participating teachers could edit and put comments in the content of the document and gradually the content itself became a representation of the shared knowledge or beliefs of the contributors (Leuf & Cunningham, 2001). In thread mode pre- and in-service teachers started a dialogue in the atlaswiki environment by posting signed messages. The community responded to them, leaving the original messages intact and eventually a group of threaded messages evolved. Nevertheless, teachers could also add new pages to atlaswiki.

During the teacher e-training course in electromagnetism supported by atlaswiki, our research interest focused on how pre- and in-service teachers interact with the developed 12

instructional e-material, with each other and with atlaswiki designers and facilitators always “with-in” the atlaswiki environment. Thus a quality and a quantity data collection came up, showing that from the thread mode mainly quality data were raised, while quantity data gathered by Google analytics provided information concerning the site and the visitors’ attitude and style of interacting with this wiki-based learning environment.

The quantitative analysis illustrates how many visitors navigated through atlaswiki, participated in thread mode, how many times they visited atlaswiki, the length and depth of their visit, how many page views per visitor etc. The results were very interesting, showing that most people visited back atlaswiki 9 to 14 times, 79% of them were returning visitors and most visits lasted from 181 to 600 seconds, opening at least 20 pages (Koulountzos & Seroglou 2008).

Discourse analysis of the discussions taking place during the e-training course triggers arguments concerning impressions and suggestions for the developed web-pages: Is multimedia information and communication adequate and clarifying in the context of such an educational wiki?

On the other hand e-discourse recorded during the e-training course focused on experiments and videos presented in the classroom. Pre- and in-service teachers were involved in discussions concerning the relation between role-plays and history of science and the role of history of science in science teaching. Fruitful feedback came from pre- and in-service teachers participating in atlaswiki (Koulountzos & Seroglou 2008).

Teachers’ impressions were positive from the beginning, saying that with multimedia information you can understand science better and you can change your opinion about science teaching. They suggested the need for more e-material, more ideas and science topics to be developed and presented in atlaswiki. Teachers showed interest to participate in future e-training courses and asked for new short movies to be filmed with teachers performing experiments with every-day materials and simple devices. They asked for those new short movies to be enriched with sound and narration saying that these audio-visual narratives will be even more interesting and effective for pre- and in-service teachers to watch and use in their teaching (Koulountzos & Seroglou 2008).

The study of the discussions of pre- and in-service teachers concerning the videotaped role-plays about Faraday’s life and work revealed that they highly appreciated the opportunity to ‘be’ – in the context of the role-play - in the scientist’s position. Teachers argued that such role-plays reproduce the era, the social, cultural and scientific background of a certain theory, an invention as well as scientists involved, giving meaning and context to the learning of science concepts and theories, explaining for example how and why an invention happened, what need came to fulfill, how the scientists proceeded their research, what lines of thought and which events led scientists to their concluding results and theories.

Finally, concerning history of science and science teaching pre- and in-service teachers asked for the development of new case studies concerning women in science, science and 13

technology, the relations between science and politics, economy, religion, ethics, legends, etc. This demand for new case studies also opens a new research area for researchers in history of science, science education and ICT to work on developing together models and methods for the design and evaluation of activities for science teaching inspired by history of science and elaborated in the context of web-based learning environments.

References

Allinder, R. M. :1994, The Relationship between Efficacy and the Instructional Practices of Special Education Teachers and Consultants, Teacher Education and Special Education, 17, 86-95.

Cajori, F.: 1962, A History of Physics. Dover Publications Inc. New York.Connor, R.: 2007, The Effect on the Self-efficacy for Science Teaching and Knowledge

in Practicing Elementary Teacher through Participation in a Professional Development Program Promoting Nature of Science Understanding. Paper presented at the Ninth International History, Philosophy & Science Teaching Conference, June 24-28, 2007, Calgary, Canada.

Gardner, H.: 1993, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Basic Books, New York.

Guskey, T. R.: 1988, Teacher Efficacy, Self-concept and Attitudes toward the Implementation of Instructional Innovation, Teaching and Teacher Education, 4, 63-69.

Faraday, M.: 1839, Identity of Electricities Derived from Different Sources. In R. Taylor and J. E. Taylor (Eds.) Experimental Researches in Electricit,. London.

INSPIRAL: 2001, Final Report Available at http://inspiral.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/ (accessed on 18/01/2007).

Koulountzos, V., Primerakis, G. & Seroglou, F.: 2007, Instructional e-Material Design for Teacher e-training: The Case of Electromagnetism. Paper presented at Ninth International History, Philosophy & Science Teaching Conference, 24-28 June 2007, Calgary.

Koulountzos, V. & Seroglou, F.: 2007a, Designing a Web-based Learning Environment: The Case of ATLAS. Paper presented at IMICT 2007 Conference “Informatics, Mathematics and ICT: a golden triangle”, 27-29 June 2007, Boston.

Koulountzos, V. & Seroglou, F.: 2007b, Web-based Learning Environments and Teacher Training in Science Literacy. Paper presented at ITET 2007 and ETLLL 2007 Joint Working Conference “Information Technology for Education and Training”, 26-28 September 2007, Prague.

Koulountzos, V. & Seroglou, F.: 2008, A Wiki-Course for Teacher Training in Science Education: Using History of Science to Teach Electromagnetism. Invited paper presented at the 7th International Conference for the History of Science in Science Education “Adapting Historical Knowledge Production to the Classroom, 7- 1 July 2008 Athens, Greece.

Leuf, B., & Cunningham, W.: 2001, The Wiki Way: Quick Collaboration on the Web. Upper Saddle River: Addison Wesley.

14

McSharry, G. & Jones, S.: 2000, Role-play in Science Teaching and Learning, School Science Review, 82(298).

Seroglou, F.: 2006, Science for Citizenship, Epikentro Publications, Thessaloniki (in greek).

Seroglou, F., Koulountzos, V., Papadopoulos, P. & Knavas, O.: 2008, Restructuring Science Stories in Films & Role-Playing: Teaching Science Concepts in their Social and Cultural Context. Invited paper presented at the Second International Conference on Stories in Science Teaching, July 14-18, 2008, Deutsches Museum, Munich, Germany.

Seroglou, F. & Koumaras, P.: 2003, A Critical Comparison of the Approaches to the Contribution of History of Phyisics to the Cognitive, Metacognitive and Emotional Dimension of Teaching and Learning Physics: A Feasibility Study Regarding the Cognitive Dimension Using the SHINE Model. THEMES in Education, 4(1), 25-36.

Seroglou, F., Koumaras, P. & Tselfes, V.: 1998, History of Science and Instructional Design: The Case of Electromagnetism, Science & Education, 7(3), 261-280.

Whittaker, E.: 1958, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity. Thomas Nelson and sons, London.

Wolf, A.: 1952, A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th

centuries (2nd edition). George Allen and Unwin Ltd. London.Wolf, A.: 1952, A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 18th century (2nd

edition). George Allen and Unwin Ltd. London.

15