Upload
mattbentley34
View
131
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Main Func0ons of the Price Mechanism
1. Allocate – alloca3ng scarce resources among compe3ng uses
2. Ra0oning – prices serve to ra3on scarce resources when market demand outstrips supply
3. Signalling – prices adjust to demonstrate where resources are required, and where they are not
4. Incen0ves – e.g. when the price of a product rises, quan3ty supplied increases as businesses respond!
Prices send important signals
Prices change incen3ves for consumers and
suppliers
In an economy like the UK, many decisions on how to resolve the issues of opportunity cost and trade-‐offs are resolved by prices.
The Ra0oning Func0on
The ra0oning func0on -‐ when there is a shortage of a product, price will rise and deter some consumers from buying the product
Higher food prices Rising cost of ren3ng
Online auc3ons Tickets for major event
D1
P1
Price
Quan3ty
S1 S2
P2 In recent years the steep rise in food prices plus declining real incomes has highlighted the ra3oning func3on of the price mechanism
The Signalling Func0on
The signalling func0on -‐ changes in price provides informa0on to both producers and consumers about changes in market condi3ons
Coffee farmers Shale oil and gas
Share prices send signals Interest rates on loans
“CoEon farmers hit hard as prices drop to lowest since 2009” (December 2014) Plen3ful global supplies of coRon thanks to favourable weather have caused coRon prices to fall to a 5 year low. China’s farmers benefited from a $5bn scheme which ran from 2011-‐14 where the government purchased coRon at a minimum price, building up a huge stockpile — China’s reserves have risen six-‐fold since 2010 and it holds 60% of the world’s coRon inventories. The slump in prices is being badly felt by growers in the southern African country Zambia whose coRon industry employs a fi^h of the popula3on.
Consider the price signals in this example
Causes of Price Vola0lity – Supply & Demand Analysis
Price
Qty
P1
D1
P1
S1 Price
Qty
S1 S2
P2
An adverse supply shock can cause market prices to rise sharply
especially when PED is low (<1)
Rising market demand can also cause price spikes – especially when supply elas3city is low
D1 D2
P2
Price Vola0lity – Crude Oil Prices (US $s)
Price
Qty
P2
S1
The price of oil might drop if actual demand is lower than forecast and
supply condi3ons are more favourable
Demand Forecast
P1
0
20
40
60
80
100
120 Jun 14
Jul 14
Aug 14
Sep 14
Oct 14
Nov 14
Dec 14
Jan 15
Feb 15
Mar 15
Apr 1
5 May 15
June
15
Price of B
rent Crude
Oil in U.S. dollars per barrel
Demand Actual
S2
Price Vola0lity – Sugar Prices Falling Fast
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Price pe
r ton
ne in £s
• The world sugar price has been falling in recent years
• The main factor has been much stronger supply helped by favourable weather condi3ons and by the lagged effects of the high prices in 2012 and 2013
• Brazil, India, China and Thailand are the main sugar-‐producing na3ons
• Demand growth has slowed down in part due to health concerns in many advanced countries
Elas0city and Price Changes – Quick Summary
Elas3city of demand and/or supply determines how much a shi^ in market condi3ons changes equilibrium quan3ty versus price
Change in market condi0ons
• If Demand increases and Supply is perfectly inelas3c (PES=0), then price rises and quan3ty doesn't change
• If Supply increases and Demand is perfectly inelas3c (PED=0), then price falls and quan3ty doesn't change
• If Demand increases and Supply is perfectly elas3c, then price stays the same and quan3ty rises
• If Supply increases and Demand is perfectly elas3c, then price stays the same and quan3ty rises
Shrinking Market Demand for Film Video Rentals
The volume of films rented from UK retail stores has fallen sharply
Film rental market volume in the UK 2001-‐2013
Annual rentals (millions)
2001 198
2004 159
2007 92
2010 84
2013 53
Falling cost of fast broadband • Increase speed of downloads • Shi^ in consumer preferences
Recovery in life cinema visits • Investment in digital projec3on • Greater use of dynamic pricing
Film rentals seen as inferior good • Preference to download or buy • Real incomes rising, demand for rentals falls (nega3ve income elas3city)
Prices in Ac0on: Average Diesel Price in the UK
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150 Jan 13
Feb 13
Mar 13
Apr 1
3 May 13
Jun 13
Jul 13
Aug 13
Sep 13
Oct 13
Nov 13
Dec 13
Jan 14
Feb 14
Mar 14
Apr 1
4 May 14
Jun 14
Jul 14
Aug 14
Sep 14
Oct 14
Nov 14
Dec 14
Jan 15
Feb 15
Mar 15
Apr 1
5 May 15
Jun 15
Jul 15
Price pe
r lite
r in pe
nce
The average market price for diesel has been declining steadily over the last two years. The main reason has been the sharp drop in world oil prices. Intense compe33on among petrol retailers has also led to some price reduc3ons.
Prices in Ac0on: Beer Prices Around the World
6.32
6.16
5.79
5.31
5.2
5.13
5.13
4.91
4.77
4.66
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Geneva
Hong Kong
Tel Aviv
Oslo
New York
Singapore
Miami
Helsinki
Tokyo
Abu Dhabi
Beer price in pounds sterling (£)
Most Expensive Ci3es for a 33cl Beer
1.66
1.66
1.69
1.72
1.75
1.78
1.96
1.97
1.98
2.11
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Krakow
Kiev
Bra3slava
Malaga
Delhi
Ho Chi Minh City
Mexico City
Belgrade
Asuncion
Bangkok
Beer price in U.S. dollars ($)
Most Affordable Ci3es for a 33cl Beer
Current market exchange rate (July 2015) £1 = $1.56
Can you use economic factors to explain why beer prices vary?
Rising Prices for Olive Oil
Extract The price of premium virgin olive oil has risen to $4,282 a tonne in November 2014, the highest since 2008. A severe drought in Spain and a fruit fly infesta3on in Italy have caused a surge in the price of olive oil. The two countries normally account for just under 70 per cent of output. If prices remain high, consumers may con3nue to switch towards cheaper subs3tutes such as soya, palm and rapeseed oil.
Source: Newspaper reports
Q: Explain why the price of olive oil has risen A: An inward shi^ of market supply causes increased scarcity -‐ drives prices higher. PED likely to be low which amplifies price rises Q: To what extent might the rise in the price of olive oil lead to a rise in the price of olive oil in UK supermarkets? A: There are few processing costs so a rise in olive oil prices should feed through quickly But… • Other costs may be falling e.g. boRling,
wages, distribu3on etc. • Supermarkets may maintain prices and be
prepared to sacrifice some profits. • A rise in the £/Euro exchange rate may
prevent a price rise as imports are cheaper