The vocabulary / grammar component?

Look at these examples and determine what components in language can be observed (e.g., vocabulary, grammar, text, register…? Explain why)

a) To relate to + something vs. to be related to + someoneb) Had he + past participle… / he would + past participlec) Could I please have … ?(in a restaurant)d) To make + someone + adjective versus to make + something + preposition (up, into…)e) The data are examined vs. The data is run

Approaches to lexis and grammar in text units

Discourse-based (top-down)

e.g., Bhatia, 1998; Carter, 1998; Tribble, 2001; Scott, 2001; Flowerdew, 2004; Hüttner et al, 2009 (...)

AIMS: To identify characteristic lexico-grammatical traits / discoursive items / movements, etc ...

Sentence level (bottom-up approach)

e.g., Johns, 1991; Aston, 1997; Bernardini, 2000; Curado, 2002; De Cock (2003); Yeung, 2009, Boulton (2010)

AIMS: To discover / assess linguistic traits for language learning via empirical observation

Specific aims (e.g., writing in a discipline): ESP / EAP /EPP …

--EFL countries (Brazil, France, Spain...)

--Working with specialized corpora (academic, professional...) to both identify and propose language / teaching solutions (key phraseology, rhetorical items, etc) within or across disciplines

Academic register (Example 1 of lexico-grammatical approach)

Start = “the good old semi-technical lexis” with hugely different frequencies, collocations, and meanings across disciplines (cf. Hyland, 2009; Durrant, 2009 …)

e.g.; applied linguistics (on the other hand + textual act) vs. Electrical engineering (as shown in figure + research oriented)

In a discipline, e.g.:

1) Computer Science (+ empirical / experimental, + research...)

2) Analysis and DDL for academic discourse competence (Spanish faculty / graduate students inform about research)

EXAMPLE: C.S. (NNS) vs. Humanities..NS) vs CS (NS)

-10

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

NNS Corpus

BNC selection

NS Computer Science

Relative word frequencies

 WORD

 

NNS Corpus for Case Study

BNC selection

IN >  

TO   <

FOR >  

AS >  

THAT >  

IS   <

ON >  

WE >>  

HAVE >  

CAN >>  

AT >  

USE >>  

FROM   <

WHICH =  

BUT >  

C.S. NS (40,180 tokens)IsForThatBeAreAsWithThisByOnIt >FromWas >CanNot >WhichHaveWe <WithinTheseAtWereAlso

Relative word frequencies

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

on by

with

be we

can

use

from

also

shou

ld into

both

each so

som

e

may

such

I if

our

NNS texts

BNC texts

NS C.S.

T-scores = + 2.0; M.I. Scores = + 3.0T-scores = + 2.0; M.I. Scores = + 3.0(Collocational strength– Clear, 1999)(Collocational strength– Clear, 1999)

Freq of node ‘new’ f(n): 221 Freq of collocate ‘technologies’ f(c): 123

Freq of node and collocate within span: 16 Size of corpus: 500120

We observe that (2.6 / 11.4)2.6 / 11.4) (CS NNS)(CS NNS)

Lexical / grammatical patternsLexical / grammatical patterns

Specialized collocationsSpecialized collocations (Topic / area)Eg. record + file

Eg. New information technologiesEg. The use of [+ technology]

eg. information + available on + digital media

Lexical-rhetoricalLexical-rhetorical (Genre / text type)Ej. With respect to (+ concept)

Ej. In this paper weEj. As far as [+ subject] is concerned

Ej. This is found to be (passive)

Contrastive information: collocations, colligations, semantic associations,

textual (Hoey, 2005)

*Similar use

*C.S. NNS gap = 15% more in BNC

*C.S. NNS use = 15% more in NNS

e.g. Appear* to be (similar) /

to ensure that (NS) /

in this sense (NNS)

*[and NS and NNS field-driven?]

WORD USE Similar Use NS only NNS only

Collocation Appear* + to be (20 / 20.4 / 19%) 

It is possible to (28 / 8 / 28.4%)

We observe that (0 / 14.7 / 0%)

Colligation The basis for (Direct Object) (26.3 / 17.6 / 21%) 

Noun + to (no purpose / no reported speech) (26.5 / 1.2 / 17%)

Be + asked to (present tense)(0 / 61.5 / 13%)

Semantic Association In the field of + area(20 / 11.5 / 16%)

To be seeking + functionality (28 / 0 / 18%)

Related to + concept(26 / 76.9 / 36%)

 Textual Colligation

 

As a result of (beg. paragraphs)(20 / 31.5 / 26%)

 

One of the most + adj. (beg. sentences)(23.2 / 4.3 / 19%)

 

For this reason, (beg. sentences)(2.9 / 20 / 3%)

Genre and subject / fieldLexical use Genre Subject

Collocation Such as + examples (52 / 56% --C.S. papers)

If and only if (71.4% --BNC: Logic) 

Colligation I had + past participle(47% --BNC reports)

is + to be + past participle(22 / 17.8% --C.S.: IT and networking) 

Semantic Association Be + applied to + area(17 / 25.6 % --C.S. paper Introductions & Method)

Be / appear + on the right + side (19 / 26.6% --C.S.: graphical design) 

Textual Colligation There is no + noun (beg. paragraphs) (34.8% -- BNC articles)

This form + be completed (beg. paragraphs)(16.4% -- BNC: survey reports)

Correlating frequency and usee.g., e.g., “we + observe” vs. “subj + has been /

was observed” (also CS)

1) There is a more open use of words in patterns by NS authors (e.g., observe > this is observed to be / we observe / this has been observed to … )

2) The NS limitation often obeys the rigid influence of formulaic items & fossilization (K. Hyland’s claim that the semi-technical items should follow the research-oriented stylistic inclination more in engineering = many choices for patterns)

Word use and contextLexical use according to variables

0 5 10 15 20

Collocations

Colligations

Semantic Associations

Textual Colligations

number of items

NNS and NS

Subject

Genre

NS

NNS

Discipline versus NNS (Spanish) writing interference: How much?

• L1 transfer problems with collocates & also, fossilized structures

Data management on-line (e.g., Sketch Engine)

Double objective: Distinguish most appropriate use & work with more phraseological

possibilities = enrich writing (genre & field)

Key points so far

--Relative frequencies as key references of use

--the lexico-grammatical component in specific text (top-down)

--Statistical information on word behavior (bottom-up) --Exploring content + content / function + content elements:Overusing, under-using, misusing by Non-native

--L1 transfer problem and fossilized items

Text type-focus (more examples)

In our organisation, we are just in the process of finalising our new 3-year rolling Strategic Plan. Crucial to achieving the objectivesachieving the objectives set in the Plan set in the Plan will be the implementation of a large number of will be the implementation of a large number of new projects/initiatives that will have an impact new projects/initiatives that will have an impact on every part of the organisation. on every part of the organisation.  

A computer technical report? An academic lecture?

The Pet Rock, the White Power Rangers, the Beanie Babies and the Furbies were toys that achieved achieved successsuccess in different years without coming from in different years without coming from the rule-book or the experience database of any the rule-book or the experience database of any single company. Despite their yesterday's success, single company. Despite their yesterday's success, the producers of such toys are not guaranteed the producers of such toys are not guaranteed a place in the future that doesn't compute a place in the future that doesn't compute based on yesterday's historical data.based on yesterday's historical data. A business review? A piece of news? (Give reasons for your choice)

Activities in class and collocations / patterns Activities in class and collocations / patterns

Another type of encryption designed primarily for business-to- business information exchange involves both a public and a private key. The company that plans to exchange data with another company provides it with a public key. This public key is used to encrypt data for transmission between the companies but is not used for decryption. The receiving company uses its private key to decrypt the data upon receipt. Data sent over the Internet runs the risk of being changed by a hacker during transmission. Data alteration includes deleting data, adding a virus to destroy data or report data back to the hacker, and altering a business transaction. Using digital signatures can reduce these risks. A digital signature contains a hash code derived from the data per se. Any data modification will cause a different hash code that will not match the digital signature. After the digital signature is encrypted within the message, the message is sent to the recipient, first with the sender’s private key and then with the receiver’s public key. Furthermore, the recipient must decrypt the message first with its private keys and then with the sender’s public key. This method ensures that the message can come only from the sender. Unregistered transactions: A business transaction may run the risk of being sent but not received. This risk can be costly if the transaction is in response to a limited-time offer, such as a bid on a government contract. The receipt of an important transaction should be confirmed by sending an acknowledgment message back to the sender. Corporations find themselves at the mercy of Internet hackers and vandals. They are looking for different ways to protect their own networks against intrusion from hackers. Companies must not only prevent unauthorized users from accessing private and sensitive data and resources but must also prevent unauthorized export of such sensitive information. Meanwhile, they also must ensure the smooth operation and availability of their own networks and take all measures necessary to uphold their corporate reputation, which could suffer greatly if networks, resources, or data are compromised. Given

•NEED FOR TECHNICAL COMPOUNDS—Collin et al. (2004); Kaplan (2000)

•Management control system -- management control

•bit array -- number of bits

•online tax preparation software -- tax software

resource-based view of the firm -- view of the firm

•Discussing ‘solutions’: (L.A. Robb, 1996)

•sistema de gestión controlada; un string de bits; Un bit array*; software de tasas**; preparación de tasas online**; visión de la firma basada en riqueza??***;

GENRE / TEXT TYPE VARIATIONS:

In this paper we…-- En este papel*** RESEARCH PAPER It was argued that…-- Se argumentó que*PROCEEDINGS(company+) Sales analysis reported that…-- El análisis de ventas reportó* -- TECHNICAL REPORT Get your company started-- Coge a tu compañía empezada*** -- WEB SITE Our paper-- Nuestro papel*** --ABSTRACT In the current example-- En el corriente ejemplo***TEXTBOOK

Rhetorical-discoursive markersRhetorical-discoursive markers

1. Nominal wages increase because ofbecause of a demand impulse in 2. experienced tremendous growth because ofbecause of the demand 3. for when the market for enforcement is tighter, either because ofbecause of high demand or because ofbecause of low supply 4. service sectors are picking up because ofbecause of strengthening demand. ¿debido a …?

COLLOCATIONS______________corporate____ + LAW + IMAGE + GOVERNANCE + CONTROL

+ REPORT + PERFORMANCE + FINANCE + SECTORCHECK for instance:EG. INFORME TÉCNICO / RENDIMIENTO DE LA EMPRESA…

Observing language / L1 / L2

Text type & field / topic focus (can one guess?)

According to our historical data, …According to our historical data, …

The paper describes our research findings…The paper describes our research findings…

For the results above, a similar phenomenon has For the results above, a similar phenomenon has been found in a different site…been found in a different site…

Maybe I should emphasize the importance of thatMaybe I should emphasize the importance of thatConcept…Concept…

If and only if X > Y can we then assume…If and only if X > Y can we then assume…

Sorry, I couldn’t hear your questions…Sorry, I couldn’t hear your questions…

Enhancing tools for the relation between lexico-Enhancing tools for the relation between lexico-grammatical items and text / discoursegrammatical items and text / discourse

14

Enhancing learning (possible resources)Enhancing learning (possible resources)

14

Lexis and grammar in the conversation register (Example with children)

 

• Speakers use parallel forms / e.g., pattern question and answer replies (Carter, 2004)

• language-in-action collaborative tasks among speakers (McCarthy, 1998)

• Categories: Age, nationality, situation / topic…

• Example: Children in USA– English / Spanish

Child Age

Aimee 5;4.0

Justin 4;6.0

Melissa 3;4.0

Trevor 4;3.0

Willie 6;1.0

Oral texts: CHILDES

02468

1012141618

English

Spanish

Bilingual

0

20

40

60

80

A. English S. Spanish B. Spanish

Average lengths

Aver. W.length

Aver. S.length

• Children / adult

(+or –familiar =

situations; Carter)• Production /

reception

(tagging adults’)

Standardised ratios (STTR)

0

10

20

30

3-yearold

4-yearold

5-yearold

6-yearold

nº w

ords

per

100

0 to

kens

s

A. English

S. Spanish

B. Spanish

Frequency + dispersion (DCLs)• Overall similarities and differences:1. + inter-personal statements2. + everyday words / worlds (coche / boy)3. + markers, references (esto / aquí / then)4. 2nd vs. 3rd persons 5. Concise / short sentences vs. Longer

ones; less vs. More opinion (me parece)6. Age levels

American English (monolingual)

 

Spain’s Spanish (monolingual)

Spanish / English (Bilingual Latin American in USA)

Word TOTALYou 30921I 27118A 23615Be 23388The 20701It 20222What 16925To 15343Do 14944That 14056Dem 10622Not 9415And 8774Go 8507This 7871In 7848No 7597On 7351One 7227Have 7128

Word TOTALA 25204No 23096Que 19932La 16372El 16303Es 13580Se 12636Qué 12477De 10391Sí 10365Éh 8511Lo 7069En 6673O 6071Me 5999Aquí 5951Está 5317Mira 5298Los 5201Mí 4610

 

Word TOTALNo 3485A 3468Y 3209Que 2843El 2162La 2010Sí 1723Es 1609Eh 1482Aquí 1386Lo 1272Un 1261De 1226Se 1191Me 1111Cómo 1078Te 1076Ya 1047

Está 946 Yo 889

 

American English (monolingual)

  Spain’s Spanish (monolingual) Spanish / English (Bilingual Latin

American in USA)

 

I don’t knowI’m goin(g) to (5 & 4 years) Mommy, you… (all)I’m not gonna (5 years)I want ta go (4 years)You want to…? (4 & 3 years)I’m gonna (6 years)You have toYou open it I not going to (3 years) 

 

A ver siA lo mejor

No sé qué es (6 & 5 years)

Es que como no… (6 years)

Porque no + verb (6 & 5 years)

A mí no me gusta (6, 5 & 4 years)

Mira lo que + verb (4 years)

Pues creo queLo tienes que

Y luego (5, 4 & 3 years)

 

Y ya está Y lo pone en

Y luego (6 & 5 years)Me voy a + verb (all)No me acuerdo (all

except 6 years)No se puede

Me parece que (4 years)Sí es eso

Y yo también (all)Mamita, el de… (3 years)

Examples:

• Questions asked by adults vs. Children (3 / 4)• Structures (e.g., Be + going to / gonna (3 / 4)

Age level-related development

3 and 4

Freq.

Field – Year 3 Field – Year 4

1 Do you have... / would you like (adult) / where did you ... (adult) / what else did you... (adult) / why don't you... (adult) / what do you call... (adult)

I don't (want) / I don't see (no birds) / I'm finished

2 I don't know / I don't think you (adult) / I want to (go) / I going to / I don't want to / I want some (more) / mommy, I want (a)

you have to / mommy, you... / how you do it / how do you do it / where you going

3 Chug a chug a chug / make a (dog) (adult) / make a (plane) (child) /

it looks like a / dis is a / I never heard of a / it's gonna be a

4 Oh yeah? Oh look it what does it say / you turn it /

5 what kind of... (adult) I like to / would you like to (mother)

6 play with (toy) what is dis / what is that (mother)

• Comprehension / production according to age:

keyness (vs. Other ages and Other directories)

e.g., + likes and dislikes / commands (all since 3)

+ declaratives / questions (since 4)

+ numbers (5) / + colours (6)

Negative: specific words (e.g., “suitcase” – age 3 / “dem” – age 5, etc)

Possible applications for pedagogyKeyword type Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6

POSITIVE  I

[NAMES]A

HEGOIN(G)[WHY]D(O)[YA]UHDIS

MONKEYBUGS

IS[THIS]DOSETHADEYDE

TIREKNOCK

 

 [NAMES]IDEDISMOMMYI’M[COULD]GRAINDAT’SGONNA[INFINITIVES]NOWDESENEEDDERECANMOM[AUXILIARIES]HEYPAINT

 ALLIGATOR

OLDLADY

[BALANCE]FIVEYUPOK

HOW[MHMH]

[NUMBERS]ASK

GIRAFFE[SOMETIMES]

THINKGOPTHIS

SCHOOLGUTCHET

NINEWE

 

 [PICK CARDS]PENGUINBLUEWINBACKWARDSPENGUINSGREENCARDSIROBBIE’SCANDYLANDGAMEMOVEDHATESTAYPURPLEPICKEDTHEYHEARTS[ORDER]

NEGATIVE HMMBOOMYUM

SUITCASEGAIN

DOLLYBOOKSKNOWSMOVEGON

 

TVFIT

[MOTHER’S]ICE

BATHBOOMWORDHAPPYSHOECOAT

 

TOYHOUSESHAPECHAIRWHO

WHAT’SOKAYTAKESAWAYLOOK

DEMFO

BRIDGEREINDEER

DATMARBLEBREAK

‘TJEEPOPEN

• Broader Contrastive View:

Overall key items in English (vs. BNC sampler) and Spanish (vs. Written material—news, essays, ads—on the web)

keyness :

e.g., + questions (what / qué)

+ personal inclinations (I want / quiero...)

+ negation / dislikes / commands (don’t / no / ...)

EFL content for Spanish learnersAmerican English

 Spain’s Spanish

Word KeynessYou 65.208,5Dem 60.718,0What 53.113,5Do 38.399,9Go 28.287,0I 24.541,8A 21.785,5It 21.218,3Zero 20.639,2Not 18.937,5Mommy 18.612,8Want 16.661,1No 16.515,1That 16.035,6Don't 15.150,2Oh 14.576,8Here 14.421,3Huh 14.326,5Put 14.182,9See 13.663,4 

Word KeynessQué 7.722,3No 6.660,0Sí 6.572,3Te 4.604,5Mira 3.733,8Aquí 3.411,6Está 3.213,1Mí 2.828,3Me 2.240,5Ver 2.202,0Di 2.197,7Eh 2.183,7Ti 2.136,9Ah 2.044,7Ay 1.590,0Yo 1.575,6Ahí 1.555,9Esto 1.292,1Así 1.271,5Ahora 1.244,9 

Nationality / Age comparison

Interpersonal Declarative Markers

American English

3 <> 4 ,4583 ,0057 ,0593

3 <> 5 ,0003 ,4923 ,5289

3 <> 6 ,4660 ,2085 ,0002

4 <>5 ,0000 ,0311 ,0968

4 <> 6 ,0252 ,0003 ,0000

5 <> 6 ,5989 ,0629 ,0062

Spain’s Spanish

3 <> 4 ,3617 ,1213 ,9714

3 <> 5 ,7595 ,0052 ,1917

3 <> 6 ,9027 ,0794 ,0398

4 <>5 ,4110 ,9072 ,2047

4 <> 6 ,3279 ,5768 ,0434

5 <> 6 ,7979 ,2432 ,4016

• COLLABORATIVE PLAY / TASKS• DYNAMIC AND VISUAL• RECEIVE AND

PRODUCE INFORMATION

Resources for pedagogical aims in the

children’s lessons

1. Interpersonal (i.e., use of first and second person pronouns, vocative words, commands);

2. Declarative (demonstrative pronouns and adjectives, third person statements, expression of preferences and dislikes);

3. Markers (discourse connectors, interjections, gambits)

4. Nouns (30 % English / 26 % Spanish); 14.6 % verbs / 7 % adjectives

Linguistic-discursive priorities

• 60 keywords at each age level > t-scores 1. Interpersonal = years 3 and 4 (E = S)2. Declarative = years 4 and 3 (E); 3 (S)3. Markers = years 4 and 5 (E); 5 and 6 (S)4. Nouns = years 5 and 4 (E); 5 (S)

*MOT: want to take it apart first ? [interpersonal question]*CHI: right here +... [marker / metadiscourse / production]*MOT: how do you get it out ? [interpersonal question]*MOT: how do you get the pieces out ? [interpersonal question / repetition]*MOT: like this ? [question / metadiscourse / repetition]*CHI: yeah . [answer / production]*MOT: ok . [answer / marker]*CHI: are ya gonna talk to it without the puzzles out of it ? [interpersonal question / production]*MOT: yeah . [answer]*MOT: <you can just put> [//] why don't you put a piece and then I'll put

a piece . [command / question]*CHI: ok . [answer / marker / production]*MOT: this looks like Mickey's head . [declarative / naming]*MOT: is that his head ? [question / repetition]*CHI: yep . [answer / production]*MOT: ok . [answer / marker]*CHI: there . [metadiscourse / production]*MOT: now it's your turn . [marker / interpersonal prompt]*CHI: um . [pause / marker / production]  *MOT: ok . [answer / marker]  *CHI: there . [metadiscourse / production]   

*OBS: a ver # me dices como te llamas . [interpersonal question] *CRI: Cristina Perez Perez . [answer / production]  *OBS: Cristina Perez Perez ? [question / repetition] *OBS: oye que estabas haciendo ahora en clase ? [marker / interpersonal question] CRI: estaba escribiendo y pintando . [answer / declarative / production] *OBS: y que estabas escribiendo y pintando ? [interpersonal question / repetition] *CRI: escribiendo en el cuaderno azul . [answer / declarative / production] *OBS: si # oye y que es el cuaderno azul ? [marker / interpersonal question / repetition] *CRI: uno que tiene cuadrados rojos y lo voy a terminar . [answer / declarative / production] *OBS: si y que te ha dicho la sor # que lo haces bien ? [marker / interpersonal question] *CRI: si . [answer / production] *OBS: y tambien pintas en ese ? [marker / metadiscourse / interpersonal question] *CRI: &=afirma . [answer / production] *OBS: y que pintas ? [marker / interpersonal question] *CRI: pin [/] pinto cuadros . [answer / production]  

lessons Concepts 3 4 5 Linguistic content

3 4 5

Colours   X Like/ Dislike X X X

Greetings / introductions

X

X

X

Prepositions X

 X

Numbers X Commands (Imperative)

X

X X

Sizes and shapes

X X X To be X X X

The weather     X It is … X X X

Feelings (love, hate …) and likes (I like/ I don´t like)

X

X

X

Are you ….? X

X

Specific Vocabulary

X

To have X

X

X

Simple descriptions of objects, people ...

X

X

X

Personal and possessive pronouns

X

X

X

Space /time orientation (up, down, near ...)

X

X

X

Can/CouldWould you like …

X

Specific Vocabulary

X

To have X

X

X

Naming of objects, people –simple definitions

X

X

X

Personal and possessive pronouns

X

X

X

Space /time orientation (up, down, near ...)

X

X

X

Can/CouldWould you like …

X

Actions (read, jump, run)

X

X

AdjectivesComparative and superlative

X

X

Family X X

These is/are X X

Sensations, states of mind (happy, bored, I am cold…)

  

X

X

Do/doesYes/no questions

   X

X

Daily routines (wash one’s hands, have breakfast…) and parts of the day

X

X

X

Wh/ open questions Interrogative pronouns

   X

 X

• Self-access and group interactivity with key language at age (EFL and L1):

– Adaptive for age / knowledge level (e.g., focus on common words, common structures, simple naming, defining ...)

– Assessment by teachers + other professionals (child pedagogy / psychology / sociology counsellors...)

• Animations / graphics / visual aspects > motivation in MULTIMODALITY (e.g., audiovisual references in metadiscourse, interpersonal addresses, etc)

• Interaction via Computer & networking: learning and playing too

Applications / Implications

• Think about the fields / topics that are important for 12-15 year old teenagers:

>What words are more important and why? Also think about how to best have students acess and exploit them…?

The vocabulary / grammar component in speech?

Determine what components can be observed (e.g., vocabulary, grammar, text, register…? Explain why)

a)Dunno about that, maybe, I ain’t sure, maybeb)Had I known back then, then that’d’ve made some difference!c) Could you just shut up once and for all!d) Whatever he’s thinking, he sure chews it up e)How’re you doing? Fine, thanksf)Needless to say, need I say more!g)Just going for a stroll…!