Western Schools of

Philosophy and Education By

M.VIJAYALAKSHMIAssistant Professor

UNIT II Western Schools of Philosophy

and Education

By

M.VIJAYALAKSHMI

UNIT II : Western Schools of Philosophy and Education

• Western Schools of Philosophy and Education: Educational implications of Idealism, Naturalism, Pragmatism, Realism, Eclecticism and Constructivism.

IDEALISM•Monistic concept• Plato• Chief Exponents

Socrates, Plato, Tagore, Gandhiji, Sri Arabindo, Vivekanada

BASIC PRINCIPLES

• Ultimate reality is mind and spirit• Ideas are final• Believes in God and Spiritual Values• Values are predetermined, absolute and

unchanging . Faith in Eternal Values• Belief in “Apriori” knowledge• Truth is Subjective• Knowledge and Truth are different

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION• Stress on spiritual environment• Education is based on spiritualism• Self-realisation is the aim of education• Emphasises mental capacities• Teacher and curriculum are the central aspects of

education. Relatively unimportant place for the child• Development of the child in accordance with adult

standards• Emphasises book learning• Both individual and society are valued• Definite and specific ideaology maintained• Stress on discipilining the child

AIMS OF EDUCATION

• Self-realisation• Spiritual development• Realization of Truth, Goodness and Beauty• Conservation, promotion and transmission of

cultural heritage• Preparation for a holy life• Development of intelligence and rationality• Exaltation of Human Personality• Universal education• Development of Inventive and Creative Powers

CURRICULUM

• Curriculum developed according to ideals and eternal values

• Humanistic subjects emphasised• Main subjects – Religious studies, Spiritual

studies, Ethics, Language, Literature, History, Fine Arts, Music, etc.,

• Books are considered as Treasure house of Knowledge

METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING

• Learning through reading• Lecture, dialogue, discussion• Sravana, manana, nididyasana

to be attempted• Study of books encouraged

DISCIPLINE

• Emphasises inner discipline• Discipline comes through

moral and religious instruction• Restraint on freedom

ROLE OF TEACHERS

• Teachers’ role is supreme and important. He is a spiritual guide for the child• Teacher provides model to be

imitated

Relevance of Idealism in Education in the Emerging Indian Society

• Lofty Aims of Education• Preservation of Cultural Heritage• Position of the Teacher• Self-discipline• Emphasis on Moral Development• Integrated Curriculum

CRITICISMS AGAINST IDEALISM• Neglects psychological nature of the child• More inclined towards Spiritualism• Does not contribute much to the field of Method of

Teaching• Too much of importance - Teacher• Too much of importance – Humaities• Science and Technology are neglected• Rigid restrictions• Unobtainable goals• Too much oriented to the past

NATURALISM• Monistic Concept• Rousseau• Chief Exponents Aristotle, Comte, Herbart Spencer,

Bernard Shaw, Rousseau

NATURALISM• Meaning• Hocking – “Naturalism is metaphysics which

considers nature as a whole of reality. It excludes what is supernatural or the other world”

BASIC PRINCIPLES• Nature is the final reality• Believes in matter and importance of the

material world• Values are created in terms of specific needs• No Faith in Soul or Spirit• Development of Human Personality is due to

the Interaction of Heredity and environment• Innate Goodness of Children• Everything Natural is Beautiful and Valuable• Superiority of Empirical Knowledge

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION• Stress on Physical Environment• Education is based on Psychology and ethics• Self-expression is the aim of education• Emphasizes basic instincts, interests and tendencies• Child is the central aspect of education• Education is accordance with the nature of the child• Insignificant place for bookish knowledge• Individual alone is considered and valued• Progressive and dynamic ideology maintained• Stress on the freedom for the child

AIMS OF EDUCATION• Self-expression• Attainment of present and future happiness• Preparation for the struggle of existence• Adaptation to environment• Natural development• Autonomous development of individuality• Sensory training• Redirection and sublimation of natural instincts

CURRICULUM• Curriculum according to basic instincts, aptitudes

and tendencies of children, nature forms the main source

• Scientific subjects occupy comparatively more significance

• Main subjects – Games and Sports, Physical Science, Physiology, Health and Culture, Natural Science and Biological Science

• Senses are the gateways of knowledge• Study of Past Experience

METHODS OF TEACHING

• Learning by doing and interaction with Nature• Observation, Play way, Dalton Plan• Heuristic, Montessori, Kindergarten methods• Observations of nature encouraged• Based on principles – a) Principle of growthb) Principle of Pupil-activity and c) Principle of Individualization• Negative Education

DISCIPLINE• Supporting emancipatory discipline• Discipline by Natural Consequences• Maximum freedom to the child

ROLE OF TEACHER• Teacher’s role is subsidiary where as chilld’s

position is central• Nature is the supreme teacher• Teacher sets the stage for child and retires

behind the curtain• Teacher as an observer• One who understands child psychology

CONTRIBUTIONS OF NATURALISM TO EDUCATION

Psychologising the Educational PracticesPaedocentric EducationLearning by doing and learning through observation.Guided discovery approach called Heuristic MethodFreedom in learning situationsTeachers’ Interference and dominance are

marginalizedHolistic Tendency in the Curriculum offeredAdvocacy of Residential Schools and Co-education

CRITICISMS AGAINST NATURALISM• It denies the existence of anything beyond

nature, behind nature and other than nature• Man – any other living organisms• Superiority not considered• Uncontrolled freedom - not helpful for total

personality development• Negative Education – fail to develop positive

ideas and values in children• Discipline by natural consequences is very

dangerous

PRAGMATISM• Pluralistic Concept• John Dewey• Chief Exponents C.S.Pearce, William James,

John Dewey, Kilpatrick

MEANING• Greek word – Pragma – To do, To

make and To accomplish• Action or Practice or Activity• Instrumentalism• Humanistic Pragmatism• Experimentalism

BASIC PRINCIPLES• Upholds the power of man as supreme• Does not believe in God or spiritual values• Values are not predetermined• They are in the making• Change is the essence of this universe• Human experience is alone is real• Actions are more important than thoughts• Aesthetic value is to be viewed in terms of ‘Social

Goodness’• Should be concerned with the ‘present’• Truth is that which works

Educational Philosophy of Pragmatism

“Knowledge is not for the sake of knowledge, but to help the educand to meet his needs in a biological and social environment, so as to achieve better personal and social adjustment”

MEANING OF EDUCATION

WHY of Education• It is a natural necessity• It is a social necessityWHAT of Education• Self-expression• Growth

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION

• Stress on social and physical environment• Education is based on psychology and

science• Social-efficiency is the aim of education• Emphasises experimentation and

practices in a natural setting• Child is the central aspect of all

education activities

• Life situations and activity helpful to meet a need are the bases of education

• Experience and experiments leading to problem solving are the bases of learning

• Sociability along is emphasised• Progressive, dynamic and changeable

ideology maintained• Stress on the freedom for the child

AIMS OF EDUCATION• Social efficiency• Educational aims change according to time

and circumstances• Creation of new values• More and more education and continuous

growth• Social adjustment and harmonious

development• Development of personality

CURRICULUM• Curriculum based on subjects of utility

value • Project form the basis for curriculum• Social subjects form the main body and

others are only subsidiary• Main subjects – Health, Hygiene, Physical

Science, Culture, History, Geography, Maths, Home Science and Agriculture

Governed by the four principles

• Principle of Utility• Principle of Natural Interests• Principle of Experience

Curriculum• Principle of Integration

METHODS OF TEACHING• Learning through experience• Purposive activities in a natural

setting correlation and integration• Project Method• Problem solving encouraged

DISCIPLINE• Stresses social discipline• Discipline comes through

purposive and co-operative activities• Given freedom to frame their

own roles

ROLE OF TEACHERS• Teachers’ role is that of a friend,

motivator, philosopher and guide• Experimentalist• Counsellor• Teacher provides the child scope for

active participation so that he learns to create new values for future

CONTRIBUTIONS OF PRAGMATISM TO EDUCATION

• Fused both psychological and sociological aspects of education

• Importance to child-centred education• Social discipline• Project Method• Develop problem – solving mind• Flexible broad based curriculum• Teacher as a guide and companion to pupils• Principle of Utility and Social Goodness

LIMITATIONS OF PRAGMATISM• Soft education – without fundamental subjects• It fails to solve the riddle of the universe-its

origin, nature, purpose and destiny• It is difficult to provide an organised body of

knowledge – project method• Advocates a utilitarian approach• Contributes much to the Methods of Education,

fails to present laudable aims to education• Ignores the spiritual side of man

Relevance of Pragmatism in Education in the Emerging Indian Society

• Emphasis on Practical Utility• Emphasis on Democratic Values• Emphasis on Learning by Doing• Emphasis on Education of the Whole

Child• The Project Method of Teaching• Emphasis on Universal Education• Pragmatism does not Banish the Teacher

REALISM• Pluralistic Concept• Aristotle – Father of Realism• Chief Exponents – Milton, Commenius, John Locke,

Whitehead, Russel, Aristotle

Meaning of Realism• ROSS – “The doctrine of realism asserts

that there is a word of things beyond and corresponding to the object of our perception”

BASIC PRINCIPLES• Physical world is real and Independent of man• Objects rule our perception• Nature’s laws are true and pre-existent• Sensory are gateways of knowledge • Truths are discovered through observation and

experimentation• Values are determined by one’s own experiences• As objects have permanent properties, values also

remain unchanged• Morals and standards are those which prove to be

good for man

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION• Education is based on Science only• It emphasizes on behaviour and experiment• Child and his presents life are the centres of

education• It opposes book learning • Both the individual and the society are valued• It is liable to change according to a change in

life

AIMS OF EDUCATIION• Equip the individual with skills

and knowledge to mater the physical environment• Adjust with realities of the world

and adult approved behaviour• Promote rational thinking

CURRICULUM

• Diversification of courses but related to life• Preference for the study of Sciences• Vocational training• Place for travel and field trips• Subjects concerning day to day activities are

included in curriculum• Main subjects are – Natural Sciences,

Biological Sciences, Physical Sciences, Health Culture, Physical exercises, Math, Geography, History, Astronomy, Sports, etc.,

METHODS OF TEACHING• Subjective & Objective Method of

Teaching• Critical Observation• Exploration• Experimentation• Self-study & Practical work• Inductive Method• Correlation Method

ROLE OF TEACHER

• Teacher role is Supreme because he brings the child to learn with the external realities of life

• Imparts scientific knowledge to the child in as easy and effective way

• Helps for the objective learning of pupils• Is a man with scientific temper

STUDENT DISCIPLINE

• Discipline by limitation and evaluation of consequences• Morality is taught by consequences

of behaviour• Emancipatory discipline

ECLECTICISM

• The useful and acceptable features of different philosophies and tendencies in education are harmoniously blended.• Calls for consensus

ALL THE EDUCATIONAL PHILOSPHIES AGREE ON THE FOLLOWING

• Dignity of the individual and respect for human personality

• Mind is a powerful force and significant in the life of man

• Education should develop social efficiency• Curriculum should be highly flexible and core

curriculum should include all the subjects• Emphasising play method, learning by doing and

experimental method for imparting instruction• Discipline is a means and not an end in itself

• Eclecticism is not adopted in Modern Indian Education• Lead to the creation of educational

pockets of conflicts and confusion• Ultimately endangering national and

emotional integration

Constructivism Theory about the Nature of LearningChief Exponents John Dewey Maria Montessori David Kolb

Based on experimental learning through real life experience to construct and conditionalize knowledge

The type of learner is self-directed, creative, and innovative.

The learning goal is the highest order of learning: heuristic problem solving, metacognitive knowledge, creativity, and originality that may modify existing knowledge and allow for creation of new knowledge

Characteristics of Constructivist TeachingOne of the primary goals of using constructivist

teaching is that students learn how to learn by giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences.

According to Audrey Gray, the characteristics of a constructivist classroom are as follows:

the learners are actively involvedthe environment is democraticthe activities are interactive and student-centeredthe teacher facilitates a process of learning in which

students are encouraged to be responsible and autonomous

Jonassen (1994) - eight characteristics that differentiate constructivist learning environments

1. Provide multiple representations of reality. 2. Multiple representations avoid oversimplification and represent the

complexity of the real world. 3. Emphasize knowledge construction inserted of knowledge

reproduction. 4. Emphasize authentic tasks in a meaningful context rather than

abstract instruction out of context. 5. Provide learning environments such as real-world settings or case-

based learning instead of predetermined sequences of instruction. 6. Encourage thoughtful reflection on experience. 7. “Enable context- and content- dependent knowledge construction." 8. Support "collaborative construction of knowledge through social

negotiation, not competition among learners for recognition."

The Traditional Classroomo Begins with parts of the whole–Emphasizes

basic skillso Strict adherence to fixed curriculumo Textbooks and workbookso Instructor gives/students receiveo Instructor assumes directive, authoritative roleo Assessment via testing / correct answerso Knowledge is inerto Students work individually

The constructivist ClassroomBegin with the whole – expanding to partsPursuit of student questions / interestsPrimary Sources / manipulative materialsLearning is interaction – building on what

students already know Instructor interacts / negotiates with studentsAssessment via student works, observations,

points of view, tests. Process is as important as product

Knowledge is dynamic / change with experiencesStudents work in groups Source

Specific ApproachesConstructionism

Guided Instruction

Problem-Based Learning

Inquiry-Based Learning

Anchored Instruction

Cooperative Learning

Reciprocal Peer Teaching

Constructivist ActivitiesExperimentation

Research projects

Field trips

Films

Class discussions

Role of teachers

Modeling

Coaching

Scaffolding