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Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
About
theorySystems frameworkIndividualProgramCultureFacilitator
GroupActivityEnvironment
EnvironmentalExperientialPsycho-socialMulti-element
Black
box
Overview
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
He who loves practice without theory is like the sailor who boards ship without a rudder and compass.- Leonardo da Vinci
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He who loves practice without theory is like the sailor who boards ship without a rudder and compass and never knows where he may cast.- Leonardo da Vinci
TheoryPractice
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
It is the theory that decides what can be observed.- Albert Einstein
The moment a person forms a theory, his imagination sees in every object only the traits which favor that theory.- Thomas Jefferson
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Whenever
a theory appears to you
as the only possible one,
take this as a sign
that you have neither
understood the theory
nor the problem which
it was intended to solve.- Karl Popper Image source:
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by: alicepopkorn, http://www.flickr.com/photos/alicepopkorn/Image
license: CC-by-A 2.0,
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Each theory is right
(in some circumstances)
and wrong in others
or There is a little bit of
truth in every theory.Image source:
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by: alicepopkorn, http://www.flickr.com/photos/alicepopkorn/Image
license: CC-by-A 2.0,
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/deed.en
We must examine old ideas, old theories, although they belong to
the past, for this is the only way to understand the importance of
the new ones and the extent of their validity.
- Albert Einstein, 1938
Nearly every great advance in science, arises from a crisis in the old theory, through an endeavour to find a way out of the difficulties created. We must examine old ideas, old theories, although they belong to the past, for this is the only way to understand the importance of the new ones and the extent of their validity. Albert Einstein, 1938Image source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/36613169@N00/2879088619Image by: TheAlieness GiselaGiardinoImage license: CC-by-SA 2.0, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.en
Good theory is
practical. Theories open &
close our eyes. All theories
are a bit right. Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage
license: Public domain
Black box
theory
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
we have discovered an educational black box;
we know something works,
but we dont know how or why- Alan Ewert (1982, p. 126)
Outdoor education black box
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Is there anything unique about
outdoor education?
Kurt Hahn (1960) proudly
claimed that there was
nothing original
about Outward Bound; that
it was a combined application
of well-proven educational
and psychological practices
from other sources.
The outdoor education black box
.
Experiential theoriesPsychological and phenomenological processes of experiential learning
Environmental theoriesRestorative effects of nature and aspects of psychoevolutionary theory
Psycho-social theoriesStress-inoculation, social support, group development and educational psychology
Multi-element theoriesGeneric components of outdoor education programs
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domainBased on Neill (2008)
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Environmental theories
Nature is good theory
Direct and indirect effects of nature
Natural environment in outdoor education theory
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Nature is good theory
Outdoor education relies on an implicit nature is good
perspective, supported by:Psychoevolutionary theory
(Neill, 2004)
Biophilia hypothesis
(Kellert & Wilson, 1993; Wilson, 1984)
Nature-deficit disorder
(Louv, 2005)
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Direct and indirect
effects of nature
Outdoor education is characterised by: Direct engagement with natural environments (e.g., via senses)
Indirect engagement e.g., via adventure activities in natural environments mixed with periods of contemplation.
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Natural environment in outdoor education theory
Natural consequencesneutral, immediate, unambiguous feedback which encourages adaptive coping rather than reliance on defense mechanisms (Hattie, et al., 1997)
Natural learning
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Wilderness settings and related activities are vehicles through which one can find something out about oneself (Scherl, 1982, p. 5).
Being outside of normal, familiar contexts frees up previous
habitual constraints, heightens arousal and focus and encourages
experimentation with new psychological strategies or a fresh sense
of identity
(Kimball & Bacon, 1993, p. 26).
Natural environment in outdoor education theory
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Another environmental mechanism is the novelty and unpredictability of remote, wilderness environments.
Intervention programs which take place in unfamiliar environments have greater effects (Hattie, J. M., 1992)
The exact processes involved, however, remain, unclear.
Natural environment in outdoor education theory
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Predominant aspects of the wilderness for participants:Emotional responses and level of arousal
Distinction between self and group (e.g., activities alone compared to activities requiring group cooperation)
Recognition that effort (either physical or mental) was part of the experience. (Scherl, 1988)
Natural environment in outdoor education theory
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Experiential theories
Experiential learning principles provide an important basis for most outdoor education theories, models and programs, particularly:Dewey's theory of experience
Experiential learning cycles, spirals and waves
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Dewey's democracy & education
(1918)
The goal of education is to enable people to become active, healthy participants of democratic society.
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Dewey's theory of experience
(1938)
The task for education is guided direction of students' natural impulses.A balance needs to be struck between the freedom of individuals and the educative structure of the learning environment.
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A theory of experience is needed,
to help guide decision-making.
Dewey's theory of experience
(1938)
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Past experiencesInteractionPresent situationmis-
educative?educative?Continuity
ExperienceDewey's theory of experience
(1938)
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Four-stage experiential learning
cycle with transfer of learning
(Adapted from Kolb, 1984)
Image source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license: CC-by-A 2.5, Australia, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au
Three-stage
experiential learning cycle
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Three-stage
experiential learning cycle spiral
Image source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license: CC-by-A 2.5, Australia, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au
The adventure wave
(Adapted from Schoel et al., 1988, in Rawson, 1991, p.18)
Image source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license: CC-by-A 2.5, Australia, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au
Dramaturgy wave
(Adapted from Martin, 2001, p. 36)
Image source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license: CC-by-A 2.5, Australia, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au
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Psycho-social theories
Learning theory and group dynamics
Stress inoculation
Educational psychology
Learning theory and group psychodynamics
Learning theoryModeling
Contracting
Positive and negative reinforcement
Group psychodynamicsFacilitator guides psychodynamics
Stages of group development
Social support
Stress-inoculation
Educative encountering with stress has been described as educative disequilibrium and adaptive dissonance (Walsh & Golins, 1976)
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Educational psychology
Immediacy of experience
Feedback
Specific and difficult goals
Reassess-ment of coping strategies
Hattie et al. (1997) recommended further investigation of:
Specific and difficult goals
Social support
Feedback
Neill (2008) also suggests importance of:
Immediacy of experience
Specific and difficult goals
Feedback
Reassessment of coping strategies
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Multi-element theories
Outward Bound model
Ingredients of outdoor adventure
Learning combination lock model
Other theories
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The Outward Bound Process Model
(Adapted from Walsh & Golins, 1976)
Image source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license: CC-by-A 2.5, Australia, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au
Experiential learning process flow
(Gager, 1978, p. 5)
Image source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license: CC-by-A 2.5, Australia, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au
The ingredients of outdoor adventure
(Barret & Greenaway, 1995)
Image source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license: CC-by-A 2.5, Australia, http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au
The learning combination lock
(Beard, 2002)
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Systems framework
A dynamic organisation of interrelationships between theoretical elements involved in outdoor education programs:Interactive (Dewey)
Domains (Multi-element theories)
Systems framework domains
Seven interactive domains are proposed: Individual (I): Physical strength, flexibility, and agility, motivation, personality, self-conceptions, and past experiences;
Environment (E): Rock, weather, and location;
Activity (A): Grade (difficulty) and type of climb;
Program (P): Philosophy used to guide participants through this particular type of activity;
Group (G): Group dynamics, behaviour, and atmosphere;
Facilitator (F): Facilitation style, technical skills, and rapport with participants; and
Culture (C): Cultural norms and beliefs.
Temporal change
Each domain has a pre-existing state (continuity) which interacts with the present milieu to create one's current, unique experience:
Systems framework
(Adapted from Neill, 2008)
Individual's
current experienceIndividual
pre-existingActivityFacilitatorGroupProgramEnvironmentCiCultural
milieuImage source: Neill (2008)Image by: James NeillImage license:
CC-by-A 2.5, Australia,
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5/au
Systems framework
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Systems framework
Systems framework
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Systems framework
Systems framework
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Systems framework
Systems framework
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Systems framework
Systems framework
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Systems framework
Systems framework
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Systems framework
Systems framework
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Systems framework
Systems framework
Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Leaders assist process
the role of leaders can be seen as
assisting the process
rather than assisting the participant- (Handley, 1997, p. 74)
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Experiment, adapt, improve theory
An ounce of action is worth a ton of theory.- Friedrich Engels
TheoryPractice
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Image source: OriginalImage by: James NeillImage license: Public domain
Einstein, Albert, and Leopold Infeld. The Evolution of Physics: The Growth of Ideas from Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta. 1938. New York: Simon, 1963.
Ewert, A. (1982). A study of the effects of participation of an Outward Bound short course upon the reported self-concepts of selected participants [Abstract]. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43(09), p. 3111.
Handley, R. (1997). Strategic leadership: Non-direct intervention - Minimum direct action for maximum active direction. In T. Gray & B. Hayllar (Eds.), Catalysts for Change: 10th National Outdoor Education Conference Proceedings (pp. 74-78), January 20-24, Collaroy Beach, Sydney, NSW, Australia: The Outdoor Professionals.
Lewin, K. (1951) Field theory in social science; selected theoretical papers. D. Cartwright (ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
Neill, J. T. (2008). Enhancing personal effectiveness: Impacts of outdoor education programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Western Sydney. ick to add an outline
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