Muhammad Sheroz

M.A. ELTL (2013-928)

IER, University of the Punjab

Lahore

Qualitative Research An approach to research that relies on general and

narrative descriptions. It attempts to measure the full complexity of social phenomena to capture the perceived meanings of those studies.

Bryman (1988a:172) states that ‘qualitative research is associated with the generation of theories’. However, Hammersley (1992) said that it can also be used for theory verification.

Why qualitative research?

For analyzing and researching concepts and abstractions, qualitative research is required.

Its purpose is to enhance our general knowledge about complex events and processes.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Open inquiry

Inductive

Naturalistic

Descriptive and interpretive

Multiple perspectives

Cyclic

Attention to context

Focus on particular

Tools of qualitative researchCommonly used tools:Interviews Focus groupsObservations

Less commonly used tools:Case studyNarratives

ObservationObservation is the recording of the behavior

of the sample.

Researcher relies on his or her own powers of observation what he or she has witnessedrather than communicating with people in order to obtain information what they say or think about issues.

Types of observation:

oParticipant versus Non-participant

oDirect versus indirect

oDisguised versus undisguised

oStructured versus unstructured

oHuman versus mechanical

Participant versus Non-participant

Participant observation: the researcher/observer joins a group and observes their activities, while at the same time taking care to observe what is going on

Non-participant observation: the researcher/observer simply observes the activities, but doesn’t take part in them

Direct versus IndirectDirect observation: observing

behavior as it occurs

Indirect observation: observing the effects or results of the behavior rather than the behavior itself

Disguised versus UndisguisedDisguised observation: subject is

unaware that he or she is being observed

Undisguised observation:respondent is aware of observation

Structured versus UnstructuredStructured observation: researcher

identifies beforehand which behaviors are to be observed and recorded

Unstructured observation: no restriction is placed on what the observer would note: all behavior in the episode under study is monitored

Human versus MechanicalHuman observation: observer is a person

hired by the researcher, or, perhaps the observer is the researcher

Mechanical observation: human observer is replaced with some form of static observing device

Advantages of ObservationCollect data where and when an event or

activity is occurring

Does not rely on people’s willingness to provide information

Directly see what people do rather than relying on what they say they do

Disadvantages of ObservationSusceptible to observer bias

Observer’s paradox: people usually perform better when they know they are being observed

Does not increase understanding of why people behave the way they do

Advantages of Observational DataInsight into actual, not reported,

behaviors

No chance for recall error

Better accuracy

Less cost

Limitations of Observational DataSmall number of subjects

Subjective interpretations

Inability to pry beneath the behavior observed

Motivations, attitudes, and other internal conditions are unobserved…

Observational Checklist Observation checklist is used to record the behavior of the

participants

Based on rating scales and the coding systems

Different forms of rating scales are present in observation checklists

There can be different techniques for preparing the observation checklist according to the requirement of the topic and the perception of the observer

Categories of observational checklist Duration Recording: length of time involved

in occurrence of some behavior.

Frequency Recoding: number of occurrence ofbehavior.

Interval Recording: observation of one subjectduring a fixed period of time.

Continuous Recording: each and every happening is recorded.

Features of checklistSetting

People (or actors)

Behavior

Thank You