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Kimberly Noels Plenary slides for CUE 2011 (Saturday July 2, 2011) in Tokyo, Japan
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Kimberly A. Noels
The Contexts and Dynamics of Language
Learning Motivation
CUE JALT July 2-3, 2011
Acknowledgements
Colleagues and students involved in these projects include Maureen Ehrensberger-Dow, Hiroshi Ota, Megan Lau, Kristie Saumure, and Maya Sugita.
Many thanks go out to the professors and students who participated in this study.
This project was supported financially by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
Overview
Defining Motivation: Self-Determination Theory
Motivation across Learning Contexts Motivation and the Cultural Context
The Dynamics of Motivation Fostering Motivation in Language Learners
Defining Motivation
The motivated individual is “goal directed, expends effort, is persistent, is attentive, has desires (wants), exhibits positive affect, is aroused, has expectancies, demonstrates self-confidence (self-efficacy), and has reasons (motives)” (Gardner, 2006, p. 2).
Motivation for Learning Japanese: Participants
129 university students registered in Japanese language courses
Age 18 to 35 years (M = 20.44, SD = 2.73) Gender: 55.9% female Mother tongue: 55% English; 39.6% Chinese Language used most frequently: 77% English According to the Statistics Canada (2007),
Japanese represents 0.4% of the province’s population.
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
The more I find out about Japanese language/culture, the more interested in it I become; it is very interesting and fun for me to discover each new
kernel of knowledge. … Once again, because it is fun. -- Canadian, English
… over time I’ve fallen in love with the language itself and its sound and structure. I love writing Japanese, especially the kanji.
-- Canadian, English
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
Sigh… 6 credits of LOE [language other than English] in order to complete a BA. I really don’t understand what is with the Faculty of Arts.
Silly requirements, i.e., LOE make linguistically-challenged people like me… pretty upset to find out that the university values linguistic capability over
academic achievements. After all, the ability to pick a language up is innate and not something that can be taught.
Anyway にほんごはすきじゃありませんですよ.
-- Canadian, Mandarin
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
INTEGRATED!REGULATION!
IDENTIFIED!REGULATION!
INTROJECTED!REGULATION!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION!
EXTERNAL!REGULATION!
Self-Determination Continuum
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION!
EXTERNAL!REGULATION!
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
LOE requirement -- Canadian, English
I am learning Japanese because I would like to get a job with a Japanese car company as an accountant.
There is a lot of money in Japan, and I want it. -- Canadian, English
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
INTROJECTED!REGULATION!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION!
EXTERNAL!REGULATION!
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
I spent 3 years in Japan… I studied the martial art of naginata and my teacher and fellow students knew little English. We communicated pretty well,
but I truly wish I could have known them better. Learning Japanese would have helped that. I have some shame over
not learning more of the language while I was there. I didn’t apply myself…
-- Canadian, English
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
INTROJECTED!REGULATION!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION!
EXTERNAL!REGULATION!
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
To culture myself, to prove to myself and others that it is something I can do, and provide me with status
and a sense of intelligence. -- Canadian, English
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
IDENTIFIED!REGULATION!
INTROJECTED!REGULATION!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION!
EXTERNAL!REGULATION!
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
… I also like to fix up cars and you’d be amazed at how many Honda after-market parts come with only Japanese instructions,
and with a lot of dictionary work, I can usually get the thing put together right.
-- Canadian, English
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
IDENTIFIED!REGULATION!
INTROJECTED!REGULATION!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION!
EXTERNAL!REGULATION!
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
As part of my research in cultural anthropology, learning the language would help me understand Japanese culture better
(to some extent at least) -- Singaporean, English
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
INTEGRATED!REGULATION!
IDENTIFIED!REGULATION!
INTROJECTED!REGULATION!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION!
EXTERNAL!REGULATION!
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
When I was younger I was really interested in Japanese culture. So when I won a scholarship to do an exchange in Japan, I was really excited. It was there where I decided to
become an English teacher. So I’m going to get my degree in Education with my major as Japanese and my minor as
International/Intercultural Education. After I convocate in a few years I plan on teaching in [X High School] in Sendai….
-- Canadian, English
Self-Determination Theory Deci & Ryan (1985, 2001)
INTEGRATED!REGULATION!
IDENTIFIED!REGULATION!
INTROJECTED!REGULATION!
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION!
EXTERNAL!REGULATION!
INTRINSIC!MOTIVATION!
AMOTIVATION!
I’m learning it because in my heart, I know that is what I was meant to do.
-- Canadian, English
Motivation for Learning Japanese: Motivational Orientations
Students often have multiple reasons for learning a language. This group of students expressed high levels of identified regulation, followed by intrinsic motivation, followed by external regulation.
Adapted from Noels, Sugita, Saumure & Sharma, 2011
Context and Language Learning Motivation
Foreign Language Students (n = 20) Age: M=24.90 years (SD=6.27) Sex: 55% female
Heritage Language Students (n = 12) Age: M=21.33 years (SD=2.27) Sex: 91.7% female
English as a Second Language (ESL) Students (n = 30) Age: M=24.86 years (SD=5.40) Sex: 46.7% female
Focussed Essay Technique: What are your reasons for learning
your second language?
Pro
porti
on o
f res
pons
es (m
ain
them
e)
Adapted from Noels, Marchak, Saumure & Adrian-Taylor, 2011
BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL NEEDS AND SELF-DETERMINATION
Autonomy sense of making a conscious and voluntary
decision to engage in a personally relevant activity
Competence sense of being effective in performing the
activity; capacity to rise to “optimal challenges” Relatedness
sense of secure and satisfying connections with others in one’s social surroundings
Hypothetical Model
Autonomy
Relatedness
Competence
Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic (Self-Determined)
Motivation
Motivational Intensity
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Motivation and Culture Motivational models developed in North America
are often transported elsewhere, a practice that can be problematic.
Autonomy is a central value in many “Western” societies, especially in (North) America, and is associated with an “individualistic” cultural orientation.
Cross-cultural researchers suggest that other countries (often exemplified by East Asian nations) might be more “collectivistic”.
Motivation and Culture
Is Self-Determination Theory valid cross-culturally? Do more self-determined extrinsic orientations
and intrinsic motivation predict positive learning “outcomes”?
Is autonomy an important predictor of self-determined orientations in more collectivistic societies? Or are other needs more important (e.g. relatedness)?
We need a comparative perspective to examine cultural differences in patterns of relations between motivational variables.
Individualism-Collectivism
From: http://www.geert-hofstede.com/
Indi
vidu
alis
m
Method
Participants 101 students enrolled in EFL courses at the Aichi
Shukutoku University in Japan All native Japanese speakers Mean age = 20.57 years; 68.3% females Years studied English = 8.83 years
217 students enrolled in the EFL program at the Zurich University of Applied Sciences Winterthur in Switzerland All native (Swiss) German speakers Mean age = 23.79 years; 41.7% females Years studied English = 6.57 years
Materials • Cultural Differences
• Interdependent and Independent Self-Construals (Cross, 1995)
• Intrinsic and Extrinsic Orientations • Language Learning Orientations Scale (Noels et
al., 2000) External: To gain the benefits (eg., job, money, course
credit) which English will provide. Introjected: Because I would feel guilty if I didn’t know
English. Identified: Because English helps me to achieve goals
that are important to me. Intrinsic: For the enjoyment I feel when learning English.
• RAI = (-2 * External Regulation) + (-1 * Introjected Regulation) + (+1 * Identified Regulation) + (+2 * Intrinsic Motivation)
Materials • Hypothesized Antecedents/ Psychological
Needs • Self-Perceptions of Autonomy
• I feel that learning English is imposed on me rather than chosen by me. (reversed)
• Self-Perceptions of Competence • I don’t think I am capable of learning English well.
(reversed) • Self-Perceptions of Relatedness
• I feel a sense of welcome from others (e.g., teachers, the English community, etc.)
Materials • Hypothesized Consequences
• Motivational Intensity (Effort) • I really work hard to learn English.
• Intention to Continue (Persistence) • I want to continue to learn English after I finish this
class.
• Self-Evaluation of English Competence • Read, write, speak, understand
• Use of English outside the Class
Self-Construals S
elf-C
onst
rual
(Mea
n)
Correlations between Orientations and Hypothesized Consequences
Japan Switzerland
Mot. Int.
Self-Eval.
Persist Engl. Use
Mot. Int.
Self-Eval.
Persist English Use
Amotivation -.47 -.58 -.66 -.20 -.14 -.15 -.31 -.07
External Regulation
-.03 .01 .15 -.01 .00 .00 .13 -.09
Introjected Regulation
.09 .02 .07 -.01 .12 .08 .05 -.05
Identified Regulation
.43 .41 .66 .27 .36 .42 .46 .26
Intrinsic Motivation
.39 .43 .63 .31 .55 .44 .46 .26
Switzerland Standard Multiple Regressions
Predicting the Relative Autonomy Index
Equation Coefficients
Independent Variables
R2 F β r
Autonomy .40 54.99* .38* .54* Competence .16* .47* Relatedness .26* .47*
*p < .05
Japan Standard Multiple Regressions Predicting
the Relative Autonomy Index
Equation Coefficients
Independent Variables
R2 F β r
Autonomy .49 30.76* .55* .67* Competence .02 .43* Relatedness .20* .53*
*p < .05
Implications and Future Directions
Implications This evidence supports the cross-cultural validity
of SDT across these countries that have been shown to differ in individualism.
Methodological directions Multiple comparison groups Matched samples
Conceptual directions Proactive and Reactive Autonomy (Littlewood,
1999)
Hypothetical Model
Autonomy
Relatedness
Competence
Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic (Self-Determined)
Motivation
Motivational Intensity
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
A Dynamic Perspective on Motivation
Do Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness “cause” Intrinsic and Self-Determined Extrinsic Orientations?
Do Intrinsic and Self-Determined Extrinsic Orientations “cause” Motivational Intensity?
Participants
146 university students registered in French language courses
Age 17 to 43 years (M = 21.19, SD = 4.55) Gender: 79.2% female Mother tongue: 81.5% English (no French) English used most frequently: 92.4%
Materials
Web-based questionnaire Language Learning Orientations Scale (LLOS)
Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation
Adapted RAI = (-2 * External Regulation) + (-1 * Introjected Regulation) + (+1 * Identified Regulation) + (+2 * Integrated Regulation)
Psychological Needs Self-Perceptions of Autonomy Self-Perceptions of Competence Self-Perceptions of Relatedness
Motivational Intensity
Procedure
3 time points Early in the semester (Sept 16 to 25) Mid-semester (Oct 10 to 22) End of semester (Nov 30 to Dec 13)
Nt1 = 146; Nt2 = 110; Nt3 = 79
Cross-lagged Panel Analysis
Compet. (T1)
Compet. (T2)
Intrinsic (T1)
Intrinsic (T2)
Time 1 to Time 2
Cross-lagged Panel Analysis
Compet. (T1)
Compet. (T2)
Intrinsic (T1)
Intrinsic (T2)
Time 1 to Time 2
Cross-lagged Panel Analysis: Competence and Intrinsic Orientation
Time 1 to Time 2
* p < .05
Compet. (T1)
Compet. (T2)
Intrinsic (T1)
Intrinsic (T2)
.74*
.89*
.19 .24* .32*
.03
|z| = 3.21, p < .001
Cross-lagged Panel Analysis: Competence and Intrinsic Orientation
Compet. (T2)
Compet. (T3)
Intrinsic (T2)
Intrinsic (T3)
.75*
.83*
.24* .41* .16
.34*
Time 1 to Time 2 Time 2 to Time 3
|z| = 1.85, p = .06
* p < .05
Compet. (T1)
Compet. (T2)
Intrinsic (T1)
Intrinsic (T2)
.74*
.89*
.19 .24* .32*
.03
|z| = 3.21, p < .001
The Progressive Cycle of Motivation
Competence (T1)
Competence (T3)
Intrinsic Motivation
(T2)
.32 .34
Summary Competence seems to have the strongest role.
Initial feelings of competence predict greater intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation by the mid-term, and these orientations in turn predict greater feelings of competence by the end of the course.
Autonomy shows a similar but weaker pattern of relations with the orientations. It is less clear that autonomy “causes” intrinsic and
extrinsic (self-determined) motivational orientations. Relatedness has less of a role in the process.
Initial feelings of relatedness weakly predict greater self-determined extrinsic orientation by the midterm, but there are no significant relations between Times 2 and 3.
The Progressive Cycle of Motivation
Motivational Intensity
(T1)
Motivational Intensity
(T3)
Intrinsic/ SD Extrinsic Motivation
(T2)
.53/.40 .50/.32
A Dynamic Perspective on Motivation
Motivation is a complex process. Promoting feelings of autonomy, relatedness and especially
competence can foster intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation… and vice versa.
Self-determined extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are relevant for understanding why people put in the extra effort to engage in language learning … and vice versa.
From a dynamic systems theory, this complexity and reciprocity of relations shouldn’t be surprising.
Fostering Autonomy
Autonomy-enhancing behaviours Foster relevance Provide choice
Autonomy-suppressing behaviours Suppress criticism Intrude/interfere with the learner’s natural pace
based on Assor, Kaplan & Roth (2002). British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72.
Fostering Competence Informational Feedback/Structure
Articulate clear, explicit and well-organized directions Provide leadership and a program of action to guide
students’ ongoing activity Offer constructive feedback on how to gain control
over valued outcomes. Chaos
Ambiguous, confusing directions of “what to do” Little guidance, no goals Off-task or little feedback, competence-irrelevant info.
Based on Jang, H., Reeve, J., & Deci, E.L. (2010). Journal Of Educational Psychology, 102, 588-600.
Fostering Relatedness
Acceptance, warmth, security Express interest, empathy Assurance of security, positive regard Use inclusive language and display nonverbal
“immediacy” Isolation, unvalued, cold, uncaring
Tease, ridicule, use disparaging comments Show resentfulness or disinterest
Ryan & Powelson (1991). Journal of Experimental Education, 60, 49-66.
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