Nature of ScienceNature of ScienceBiologyBiologyStratton Fall 2009Stratton Fall 2009

Science has LimitsScience has Limits

1.1. Science must follow certain rules.Science must follow certain rules.

2.2. Science can only solve certain types of problems.Science can only solve certain types of problems.

3.3. Science can only use certain types of Science can only use certain types of explanations.explanations.

4.4. Scientific solutions are only attempts to explain Scientific solutions are only attempts to explain nature. They are not facts.nature. They are not facts.

5.5. Science can be misused.Science can be misused.

6.6. Science can be done poorly.Science can be done poorly.

The Rules of ScienceThe Rules of Science

1.1. CanCanNOTNOT answer questions which require answer questions which require opinion, beliefs or judgment as part of the opinion, beliefs or judgment as part of the answer.answer.

2.2. It must be possible to disprove a hypothesis.It must be possible to disprove a hypothesis.

3.3. Supernatural forces cannot be used as part Supernatural forces cannot be used as part of a scientific explanation.of a scientific explanation.

4.4. Scientific explanations must be based on Scientific explanations must be based on careful observations and the testing of careful observations and the testing of hypothesis.hypothesis.

Science cannot answer Science cannot answer all questionsall questions

People have different opinions based on theirPeople have different opinions based on their CustomsCustoms BeliefsBeliefs EnvironmentEnvironment

Some questions science cannot answer.Some questions science cannot answer. ““What is right?What is right?”” ““Who was the best president?Who was the best president?’’ ““Which religion is best?Which religion is best?’’ ““What is the purpose of our existence?What is the purpose of our existence?””

Science cannot answer Science cannot answer all questionsall questions

Science was never meant to answer Science was never meant to answer questions about matters of judgment, opinion questions about matters of judgment, opinion or belief.or belief.

Some explanations are impossible to disprove Some explanations are impossible to disprove and cannot be used in science.and cannot be used in science. ““Some of our behavior is caused by mysterious Some of our behavior is caused by mysterious

forces from stars.forces from stars.”” ““Some people can predict the future because Some people can predict the future because

they have a special ability.they have a special ability.””

Misuse of ScienceMisuse of Science

Pseudoscience Science

Ignore certain rules of science. Attempts to follow all the rules of science.

Tries to prove their own explanations.

Tries to disprove their own explanations.

Includes supernatural forces in their explanations.

Cannot include supernatural forces in explanations.

Ignores or discounts research which does not support their own explanations.

Considers and weighs all research on topic.

Examples of Examples of PseudosciencePseudoscience

ESPESP

Scientific CreationismScientific Creationism

UFO StudiesUFO Studies

Ancient AstronautsAncient Astronauts

AstrologyAstrology

BiorhythmsBiorhythms

NumerologyNumerology

So, what is science?So, what is science?

Science Science is…is…

1.1. Science Science originates in originates in questions about questions about the world.the world.

2.2. Observations are Observations are used to construct used to construct a possible a possible explanations or explanations or answers to the answers to the question question (hypothesis).(hypothesis).

3.3. The more The more observations observations supporting the supporting the hypothesis, the hypothesis, the stronger the stronger the possible possible explanation.explanation.

Science is…Science is…

4.4. Scientists propose explanations.Scientists propose explanations.

5.5. Scientists work with each other to propose Scientists work with each other to propose explanations.explanations.

6.6. Scientists do not always agree about the Scientists do not always agree about the explanation, even when they make the same explanation, even when they make the same observations.observations.

It is…It is…

It is…It is…

It is…It is…

It is…It is…

Science deals with…Science deals with…

FactsFactsA fact is an A fact is an observation or an observation or an inference that is inference that is widely agreed widely agreed upon by a group upon by a group of people.of people.

When there is ice When there is ice and snow it is and snow it is cold.cold.

LawsLawsA law is a A law is a description of description of phenomena that phenomena that can be observed can be observed universally…universally…

• all placesall places• all timesall times• all conditionsall conditions• by all peopleby all people

The earthThe earth’’s sun s sun sets in the west sets in the west every night.every night.

HypotheseHypothesess

A hypothesis is a A hypothesis is a prediction of the prediction of the outcome of a outcome of a given situation given situation that is based on that is based on prior knowledge prior knowledge and prior and prior observations.observations.

Flying gulls will Flying gulls will land.land.

TheoriesTheoriesA theory is an A theory is an explanation for explanation for why a fact of a why a fact of a law occurs; law occurs; based on based on evidence, evidence, experimentation experimentation and extensive and extensive observations.observations.

Vibrations cause Vibrations cause sound waves.sound waves.

Values an assumptions Values an assumptions inherent to science inherent to science and scientific and scientific knowledgeknowledge

1.1.IndependencIndependence of Thoughte of Thought

Formulating Formulating thoughts and thoughts and ideas without ideas without too much of too much of an influence an influence from others.from others.

2.2.IndependencIndependenc

e of e of ObservationObservation

Making Making observations observations and collecting and collecting data for oneself, data for oneself, without any without any influence from influence from the the observations of observations of others.others.

3.3.Prizing of Prizing of OriginalityOriginality

In science, new In science, new ideas, methods ideas, methods and innovative and innovative conclusions are conclusions are valued above valued above repetitive repetitive approaches.approaches.

4.4.Freedom of Freedom of

DissentDissentScientists should Scientists should feel that they feel that they have the right to have the right to critique and critique and disagree with disagree with each other; each other; unpopular ideas unpopular ideas that go against that go against commonly held commonly held views have the views have the right to be right to be expressed.expressed.

5.5.Free InquiryFree Inquiry

Scientists should Scientists should have the freedom have the freedom to ask questions to ask questions about whatever about whatever they want, and they want, and design design investigations investigations and experiments and experiments without without constraint.constraint.

6.6.Free SpeechFree Speech

Scientists have Scientists have the right to the right to publish and publish and declare new declare new ideas or differing ideas or differing opinions.opinions.

7.7.ToleranceTolerance

New ideas should New ideas should be permitted and be permitted and listened to, listened to, though they may though they may go against what go against what is commonly held is commonly held as truth.as truth.

8.8.Mutual Mutual

Respect Respect Scientists should Scientists should listen to each listen to each other, and give other, and give each other the each other the opportunity to opportunity to share ideas share ideas though they may though they may disagree. disagree.

9.9.CreativityCreativityMethods, ideas, Methods, ideas, processes and processes and

interpretations of interpretations of conclusions can all conclusions can all

be approached be approached creatively; sometime creatively; sometime

it takes innovation it takes innovation and imagination to and imagination to create a method of create a method of

investigation or investigation or come up with a come up with a

possible explanation possible explanation to test.to test.

10.10.TentativenesTentativenes

ssIs not being 100 Is not being 100

percent sure; percent sure; leaving room to leaving room to

doubt or change a doubt or change a conclusion: conclusion:

everything we know everything we know through science is through science is

tentative.tentative.

11.11.AmoralAmoral

Science is without Science is without any morals, good or any morals, good or

bad; scientists bad; scientists should not allow should not allow their biases and their biases and moral beliefs to moral beliefs to

influence how they influence how they interpret data.interpret data.

12.12.Unified View Unified View

of Realityof RealityScience attempts to Science attempts to

arrive at a single arrive at a single understanding of understanding of how the universe how the universe

works; all works; all knowledge we knowledge we

gather about the gather about the universe should universe should

complement rather complement rather than contradict each than contradict each

other.other.

13.13.ParsimoniousParsimoniousScience is frugal or Science is frugal or

economical in economical in thought or speech, thought or speech, science attempts to science attempts to give simple, concise give simple, concise explanations for all explanations for all

phenomena.phenomena.

14.14.TestableTestableA scientific A scientific

statement or statement or hypothesis must be hypothesis must be able to be proved or able to be proved or

disproved with a disproved with a test or experiment; test or experiment;

we only gain we only gain knowledge through knowledge through experimentation of experimentation of ideas; if something ideas; if something is not testable, then is not testable, then

it is not science.it is not science.

15.15.Empirically Empirically

Based Based It is based upon It is based upon observations; observations;

knowledge that is knowledge that is empirically based empirically based

come from come from experiments, experiments,

observations and observations and investigations.investigations.

16.16.Culturally and Culturally and

Socially Socially EmbeddedEmbedded

Everything we think, Everything we think, do, say and believe is do, say and believe is

influenced by our influenced by our culture and society; culture and society; what we choose to what we choose to

study in science, what study in science, what we believe to be true we believe to be true and the importance and the importance

we place on new we place on new ideas, discoveries and ideas, discoveries and

technology is technology is determined by the determined by the

values or our culture values or our culture and society.and society.

Guidelines for Good Guidelines for Good ScienceScience

1.1. Controlled: Controlled: only one variable at a time is only one variable at a time is tested.tested.

2.2. Repeatable: Repeatable: different scientists should be different scientists should be able to repeat the procedures and get the able to repeat the procedures and get the same results.same results.

3.3. Cause-effect: Cause-effect: Does something cause Does something cause something else to happen? If so, a change in something else to happen? If so, a change in one must result in a matching change in the one must result in a matching change in the other.other.

Guidelines for Good Guidelines for Good ScienceScience

4.4. Species-specific: Species-specific: Experiments with one Experiments with one type of species may not give the same type of species may not give the same results with other types.results with other types.

5.5. References: References: All earlier studies of the All earlier studies of the problem should be considered and related to problem should be considered and related to the present study.the present study.

6.6. Published: Published: Research should be printed in Research should be printed in journals where they can be studies and journals where they can be studies and repeated by other scientists. Reference to repeated by other scientists. Reference to unpublished studies should be questioned.unpublished studies should be questioned.