Naturalism Slides

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Give independent

justification for scientific

method.

Give independent

justification for scientific

method.Knowledge produced

with this method

is reliable.

Knowledge produced

with this method

is reliable.


Reasons to worry that scientific knowledge isn’t

reliable:

Reasons to worry that scientific knowledge isn’t

reliable:• Holism about testing• Underdetermination• Problem of induction

• Holism about testing• Underdetermination• Problem of induction


Maybe we shouldn’t

try to justify scientific

methodology, just describe it.

Maybe we shouldn’t

try to justify scientific

methodology, just describe it.Sociology of

scienceSociology of

science


Can’t explain why scientific

knowledge is better than any other kind of knowledge.

Can’t explain why scientific

knowledge is better than any other kind of knowledge.

Limitation of Sociology of

science:

Limitation of Sociology of

science:

But we want to explain success of

science!

But we want to explain success of

science!

What is Naturalism?What is Naturalism?

“Philosophy should be continuous with

science.”


science.”


Don’t need independent

justification for scientific method.

Don’t need independent

justification for scientific method.


Results from science as a resource to

help answer philosophical questions.

Results from science as a resource to

help answer philosophical questions.

What is Naturalism?What is Naturalism?


science.”


science.”


Result from

science

Result from

science

Scientific

knowledge is

reliable

Scientific

knowledge is

reliable

Naturalist philosophy of science?Naturalist philosophy of science?

Circular argument!Circular argument!


NOT: How to justify scientific

methodology?

NOT: How to justify scientific

methodology?

Naturalism shifts the questionNaturalism shifts the question

INSTEAD: What’s an adequate description

of how knowledge

and science work?

INSTEAD: What’s an adequate description

of how knowledge

and science work?


Science can tell us what the

belief-forming mechanisms are.

Science can tell us what the

belief-forming mechanisms are.

Which belief-forming mechanisms are good

ones?

Which belief-forming mechanisms are good

ones?

Philosopher asks:

Good for achieving

what goals?

Philosopher asks:

Good for achieving

what goals?


Science can describe the belief-forming

mechanism.

Science can describe the belief-forming

mechanism.

Is the mechanism responsible for belief that the sun will rise tomorrow a good one?



Philosopher asks:

what’s the goal?

Philosopher asks:

what’s the goal?






Goal: avoiding error.

Goal: avoiding error. Mechanism is a

risky one. Mechanism is a risky one.

(problem of induction)(problem of induction)


Observations can’t be an objective test of a

theory!

Observations can’t be an objective test of a

theory!

Kuhn:Kuhn:

Observations are

theory-laden.

Observations are

theory-laden.


Müller-Lyer illusion



Some background assumptions affect what you perceive.

Some background assumptions affect what you perceive.

Other background assumptions don’t affect what you

perceive.

Other background assumptions don’t affect what you

perceive.


What you see is not affected

by knowledge that this is an illusion!

What you see is not affected

by knowledge that this is an illusion!




PERCEPTUALMODULE

PERCEPTUALMODULE

THEORYTHEORY


Perceptual module

Perceptual module

Scientific theory

Scientific theory

Experience

Experience

Interpretation of

experience

Interpretation of

experience


Perceptual module output is fairly

uniform.

Perceptual module output is fairly

uniform.

Experience could provide objective

basis for evaluating theories!

Experience could provide objective

basis for evaluating theories!

Scientific resources: Sociology,

organizational psychology

Scientific resources: Sociology,

organizational psychology


Philosophical task: Explain special features

of science.

Philosophical task: Explain special features

of science.

David HullDavid Hull

Merton’s four norms of science:

Merton’s four norms of science:

• Universalism• Communism• Disinterestedness• Organized Skepticism

• Universalism• Communism• Disinterestedness• Organized Skepticism


Merton’s reward system of science:

Merton’s reward system of science:

Priority claim(recognition as first to come up with an idea or

result)

Priority claim(recognition as first to come up with an idea or

result)PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160

USE(other

scientists use and cite your

idea or result)

USE(other

scientists use and cite your

idea or result)


Hull’s reward system of science:

Hull’s reward system of science:

Tension between Merton’s norms

and reward system.

Tension between Merton’s norms

and reward system.

Easier to get the reward

(priority) if you subvert

norms!

Easier to get the reward

(priority) if you subvert

norms!PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160PHIL 160

I use ideas of others:

I use ideas of others:


• To build my ideas.• To support my ideas.

• To build my ideas.• To support my ideas.(Need to build my ideas

before others can use them!)

(Need to build my ideas before others can use

them!)

Hull’s reward system requires cooperation!

Hull’s reward system requires cooperation!

Want my idea to be used



• Check ideas of others before using them to build my ideas.• Check my own work to make sure others can use it to build their ideas.

• Check ideas of others before using them to build my ideas.• Check my own work to make sure others can use it to build their ideas.Organized skepticism flows from reward

system.

Organized skepticism flows from reward

system.


• Share ideas widely so others may use them.

• Share ideas widely so others may use them.Communism flows

from reward system.

Communism flows from reward

system.



Usable ideas:Usable ideas:


• Survive testing.• Fit well with other ideas.• Lead to new ideas.

• Survive testing.• Fit well with other ideas.• Lead to new ideas.These are ideas

that fit well with the

world!

These are ideas that

fit well with the world!

Hull’s picture fits with human

nature

Hull’s picture fits with human

natureI might not be skeptical

of my own ideas.

I might not be skeptical

of my own ideas.


Community is skeptical

of ideas (tested when used).

Community is skeptical

of ideas (tested when used).

Hull’s picture:Hull’s picture:


• Explains why science has these norms.• Explains how these norms make science successful.

• Explains why science has these norms.• Explains how these norms make science successful.

Philip KitcherPhilip KitcherScientific resources:

game theoryScientific resources:

game theory


Philosophical task: Determine best distribution of

researchers among rival research programs, and what science should do

to attain this distribution.

Philosophical task: Determine best distribution of

researchers among rival research programs, and what science should do

to attain this distribution.

Interests of individual scientists

Interests of individual scientists


How to set up science so these interests

harmonize?

How to set up science so these interests

harmonize?

Interests of scientific fieldInterests of

scientific field


What is best for science?

What is best for science?

5% chance both will fail

5% chance both will failPut all workers on Research Program 1

(80% chance of success)

Put all workers on Research Program 1

(80% chance of success)Put most workers on Research Program 1,

but put some on Research Program 2


Put most workers on Research Program 1,

but put some on Research Program 2


Research Program 180% chance of success





Put most workers on Research Program 1

(enough that additional workers

wouldn’t make a difference),

Put remaining workers on Research Program 2

Put most workers on Research Program 1

(enough that additional workers

wouldn’t make a difference),

Put remaining workers on Research Program 2

“Decreasing marginal returns”

“Decreasing marginal returns”


How does individual How does individual choose? choose?


Choose Research Program likely to bring me the

biggest reward.

Choose Research Program likely to bring me the

biggest reward.






Possible reward Possible reward structure:structure:

Possible reward Possible reward structure:structure:

Research Program

that succeeds

Research Program

that succeeds

Research Programthat fails


Each Each worker worker gets gets

prestige prestige pp..


prestige prestige pp..

Each Each worker worker gets no gets no

prestige.prestige.


prestige.prestige.


Join Research Program 1 (80% chance I’ll earn

prestige p)


prestige p)Join Research Program 2 (15% chance I’ll earn

prestige p)


prestige p)



Problem: No one will choose

to join Research Program 2!

Problem: No one will choose

to join Research Program 2!






Kitcher’s reward Kitcher’s reward structure:structure:

Kitcher’s reward Kitcher’s reward structure:structure:


prestige prestige pp divided by divided by number of number of workers.workers.


prestige prestige pp divided by divided by number of number of workers.workers.


prestige.prestige.


prestige.prestige.

The bigger the group, The bigger the group, the smaller the share of the smaller the share of

prestige.prestige.

The bigger the group, The bigger the group, the smaller the share of the smaller the share of

prestige.prestige.

Research Program

that succeeds

Research Program

that succeeds




Join Research Program 2 (15% chance I’ll earn prestige

p/M)


p/M)



If N>>M, better expected payoff

if I join Research Program 2

If N>>M, better expected payoff

if I join Research Program 2

Research Program 180% chance of success(N workers)

Research Program 180% chance of success(N workers)

Research Program 215% chance of success(M workers)

Research Program 215% chance of success(M workers)


p/N)


p/N)


Refinement to model:Refinement to model:

z% chance both will fail

z% chance both will failChances of success depend in

part on number of workers pursuing the program!

Chances of success depend in part on number of workers

pursuing the program!Workers who join early increase chances a lot.Workers who join early increase chances a lot.

Workers who join late make less difference.Workers who join late make less difference.Workers who join late make less difference.Workers who join late make less difference.

Research Program 2y% chance of success

Research Program 2y% chance of success

Research Program 1x% chance of success

Research Program 1x% chance of success


Bigger reward if you Bigger reward if you join early and make a big join early and make a big

contribution.contribution.

Bigger reward if you Bigger reward if you join early and make a big join early and make a big

contribution.contribution.

Research Program

that succeeds

Research Program

that succeeds



Strevens’ reward Strevens’ reward structure:structure:

Strevens’ reward Strevens’ reward structure:structure:

Each worker Each worker gets share of gets share of prestige prestige pp

proportional proportional to his actual to his actual contribution.contribution.

Each worker Each worker gets share of gets share of prestige prestige pp

proportional proportional to his actual to his actual contribution.contribution.


prestige.prestige.


prestige.prestige.

Education

Naturalism Slides