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C h a p t e r 5 - T h e G r e a t M i g r a t i o n, 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 3 0
RicardoandEnriqueFloresMagon
FranciscoI.Madero
FRANCISCOMADEROOneofthethingsthatmadeMaderotheleastlikelyMexicantobringanendtothelongdictatorshipofPorfirioDiazisthathewasnot,byanydefinition,amacho.Hewasaneggheaded intellectualineverysenseoftheterm,thewell-educatedandshelteredsonofafamilyofnorthernelites,andwhenhepublishedhispoliticalpamphletThePresidentialSuccessionin1910,allhewasdoingwassuggestingthatafterthirty-fiveyears,itwastimefornewbloodinthepoliticalarena(afterall,Diazwasinhisseventies),andthatElPresidente shouldberequiredtoliveuptheoldpromiseofHIS1876PlanofTuxtepec:noreelection.Butevenhere,Maderowasconservativeinhisapproach– hedidn’tevenwantDiaztogo– hethoughtheshouldremaininpowerforsolongashewasabletodothejob,hejustwantedmoredemocracyinthatthepeopleshouldelectthevice-president,andvariousotherkeyfigureswithinupperlevelsofthefederalgovernment,soastoprepareforthedaywhenPorfirioDiazwouldnolongerbetheretoholdthereinsofpower.AllacrossMexicopeoplereadMadero’swordsandsaidtothemselves,hereisaguythatjustsignedhisowndeathsentence,becausethenknewthatDiaz,evenatthatage,wouldbrooknochallengetohis
PorfirioDiaz
power,andthiswasachallenge;butwhenDiazreadit,andhadlookedintoDonFranciso Madero,hedidnotfeelthreatened,merelycurious.AndsoheinvitedMaderodowntoMexicoCityforlunch,tomeettheman,getasenseofhim,takehismeasure,seeforhimselfwhathewasmadeofandifheposedanyrealthreattothePorfiriato.Andwhenthemealwasover,DiazknewthatMaderowaslessthannothing,andratherthanhavehimarrested,ordisappeared,helethimgobacknorthtohisfamily,toCoahuila,andindoingso,hewrotethefinalpageinthehistoryofhislongreign,andsealedhisownfate.WhydidhesoseriouslyunderestimateMadero,hewhohadbeensocannyandsofarsightedforsolong,holdingMexicosotightlyinhisironfist?Because,again,Maderowassounlikelyachampion,andsoNOTtheguythatwasEVERgoingtotakeanythingawayfromPorfirioDiaz,evenasanoldman.Inthefirstplace,Maderowasalittleman,aboutfivefeettall,whoquiveredandshooklikeabird
whenhespoke;hewasavegetarian,andamysticwholikedgoingtochurch,andtotopitalloff,henevertookadrink.THISguywasgoingtoleadthemachosofMexicoagainstPorfirioDiaz?Doesn’teatmeat,nocervesas ortequila,andtomakemattersworse,hehadahigh-pitched,squeakyspeakingvoice…?Decadeslater,whenthefirstMickeyMousecartoonsmadetheirwaytoMexico,peoplethathadlivedandknownFrancisoMaderoleapttotheirfeetinmovietheatersandcriedout,“TheghostofMadero!”sosimilarweretheirvoices.THISGUY?!BeatDIAZ?!ELMACHOGRANDE???MaybeyoubegintoseewhyDiazdidn’ttakehimseriouslyasanykindofathreat–howCOULDhe?Tohim,themanwasanon-issue.Butinthenorth,Maderobegantoattractattentioninlate1909,andby1910hewasaseriouscandidateforthepresidency,makingspeechesthatsetthecrowdsonfire,andtheimportanceofthosespeechesisthatnomatterwhathesaid,orwhatHEmeant,somehowthemassesofpeoplethatlistenedtookawayfromthespeechesthemessagesthattheyneededtohear,andnotnecessarilythemessagesthat
thatMaderowantedthemtohear.AllMaderosaid,inspeechafterspeech,wasthatthecureforMexico’sproblemswas”socialjustice,”butwiththistoo-vaguephrasehemeantsimpledemocraticpoliticalreformofthekindthathehaddiscussedinhispoliticalwritings.Butfortheindustrialworkers,socialjusticemeantunions,betterworkingconditions,betterwages,shorterhours;forthelandlesspeasantssocialjusticemeantlandtoliveonandtofarm;forthemiddleclass,Madero’swordspromisedabetterMexicoforallMexicans,andforDiaz,fortoolong,Maderojustrepresentedanoisomepainintheneck,becauseforallofthecrowdsatMadero’spoliticalrallies,allDiazcouldseewastheinsignificanceoftheman,andnotthesignificanceofthesymbol.
Finally,inJulyof1910,severalmonthsbeforetheelection,DiazhadMaderoarrestedandjailedinSanLuisPotosiforincitingriots(duetothesizeandfervorofthecrowdsathisrallies),andonelectiondayinSeptember,theresultswereannouncedas99%infavorofDiaz– ajoke,andaslapinthefacttoallMexicans,becauseeveryoneinthecountryknewthatfarmoreMexicanshadvotedforMaderothanthat,andthatperhapsMaderohadevenwontheelection.Thinkingthatitwasnowsafe,DiazhadMaderoreleasedfromprisonalthoughhewasplacedunderasortof“housearrest”withinthecityofSanLuisPotosi;withinalmostnotime,MaderofledthecityforTexas,andfromthereissuedthePlanofSanLuisPotosi,declaringtherecentelectionnullified,anddeclaringhimselfpresident.HealsocalledforanationaluprisingonNovember20,1910,tooverthrowthedictatorshipofPorfirioDiaz,andthatisexactlywhathappened.Inthenorth,menlikeAbrahamGonzalez,Pascual Orozco,andFrancisco“Pancho”VillaroseuptosupportMadero,andinthesouthEmilianoZapataledhispeopleoutofMorelos;intruth,thezapatistas wereprimedtorebelanyway,andthecallbyMaderojustgavethemapretexttostartatthatparticularmoment.
AbrahamGonzalezandPascual Orozco MaderointouringcarenteringMexicoCityafterthefallofDiaz
Betterarmedandpreparedandbelievinginsomethingmuchlargerthananyoftheotherarmedinsurrectionists,thezapatista ArmyoftheSouth’saimsweresummedupinitssimpleslogan(“Landandliberty,”Tierrayliberdad),andinitsaction:assoonasthearmyhadseizedahaciendabyeitherdrivingofforkillingthehacendado andhispeople,theybegantodivideupitslandsthenandthereintofarmsforthelandlesspeasantsofMorelostobeginfarming.
Diaz,tooold,totakethefieldandactuallyleadamilitaryforce,andwithoutenoughmilitarystrengthtotakeonwhatwascomingathimfromliterallyeverydirectiononthecompass,wasultimatelyforcedtofleethecountrywithhiswifeanddaughterintow.TakingshipfromVeracruz,withacrowdofreportershavingcaughtthewordatthelastminutethatthepresidentofMexicowasgoingintoexileinFrance, theyaskedhimforanylastwordsashemadehiswayupthegangplankandontotheship.Turningtothem,Diazsaid,“Theyhavereleasedthewildhorsesfromthecorral– now,whoamongTHEMwillbestrongenoughtoputthemback?”Almostasiftosay– Iwasthestrongmanforsomanyyears,andIkeptMexicoundercontrol– cananyofthesenewmendothejobthatIdidforsomany,manyyears?CananyofTHEMkeepthepeace?
MAYBEtheworld’shandsomestman(andyes,totallysecureinmymasculinity):EmilianoZapata
EffectiveSuffrage,NoReelection,JuanO’Gorman,ChapultepecCastle,1969– showingFranciscoMaderowelcominginaneweraofdemocracytoMexicoin1910
THEMEXICANREVOLUTION,1910-1920
Thereisalotofdebateamongsthistoriansaboutwhen,exactly,theMexicanRevolutionbegan.WhenMaderofirstchallengedDiaz?Madero’sarrest?WhenheissuedthePlanofSanLusi Potosi?ThearmeduprisingagainstDiaz?WhenMaderoassumedthepresidencyin1911?Whenhewasassassinated,alongwithhisvice-presidentJoseMariaPino Suarez,byVictoriano Huertainearly1913,whichwastheprecipitatingeventthatledtothehalf-dozenyearsofalmostendlessarmedconflictbetweencompetingwarlordsforcontrolofthegovernment?It’shardtosay,andwedonothavethetime,andIdonothavetheinclination,togointothelong,andendlesslyfascinatingtelenovelathatisthestoryoftheRevolution.Solet’sjustrunthroughafewthingsthatneedtobecoveredforthepurposesofunderstandingsomethingsforfutureissuesrelativetoMexicanAmericanhistory.
MaderowasnotparticularlywellpreparedtobepresidentofMexico,becausehedidnotreallyunderstandwhatthecountryneeded,andwasnottrained,noreducated,tolead,nortogovern– hewasanintellectual,bestsuitedtoquietresearchinanisolated,quietroom.Unfortunately,eventswouldovertakehim,becausenowhewasinchargeofasystemandagovernmentcreatedby,andrunby,menloyalto,andmadeby,PorfirioDiaz,andbeforetooverylongthecorruptionofthatsystemmadeitselfevident,andledtothetragicexecutionsofMaderoandSuarezatthehandsofoneofMexico’sleadingmilitarymen,thisHuertayouseetotheright,whothoughttoseizepowerforhimself.ThatthisentireactionunfoldedwiththefullknowledgeoftheAmericanambassadortoMexico(butwithouttheknowledgeoftheambassador’sboss,PresidentWoodrowWilson,itshouldbenoted),HenryLaneWilson,bywayofwhathascometobeknownasthe“PlotoftheEmbassy”isanunpardonableblotontherecordoftheUnitedStates,butthereyouhaveit– itiswhatitis.MaderoandSuarezwereexecuted,gangster-style,shotinthebacksof
Victoriano Huerta
theirheadsinanalleyafterhavingbeeneffectivelykidnappedbywayoftrumped-upthreatsontheirlives,allafantastictissueof liesconcoctedaswayofgettingamaninthepresidencywhowouldbehavemorelikePorfirioDiaz,whichwasmoretothelikingofHenryLaneWilsonand,hebelieved,wouldbemoretothelikingofPresidentWilson.AfterMadero’sexecution,Huertalastedlessthanayear,fleeingthecapitalaheadofattackingarmiesbentonvengeanceforthekillingofthepresident.Withthecountryeffectivelyleaderlessseveral”strongmen”steppeduptothetaskoftryingtotakeholdofthewheeloftheshipofstatetosteeritintosafewaters,among themPanchoVillaandEmilianoZapata.ThisisthefamousshotofthematChapultepecCastle,withVillasittingonthethrone.Villasatdownuponit,testingitout,wigglinghisassround.“So,Emiliano,howdoIlook– suitsme,eh?!”Zapata’sreplywas:“Weshouldtakethatchairandthrowitinthelake!”“WHAT?!”criedtheoutragedVilla,“Thisthroneismagnificent,itiseverything,blah,blah,blah…!!! Inthisanecdoteyouseetheessentialdifferenceinthetwowarlords:Villa,theblusteringblowhard,theswaggeringmacho,themanwhogavewithonehandandtookawaywiththeother,the“RobinHoodoftheNorth,”largerthanlife,equallyreviledandbelovedbecauseforeverystorythatmakeshimouttobeaherothereisanotherthatshowshimasavillain.Hesawthethroneassomethignforhim,asymbolofpowertobecovetedandsatupon,whereasZapatasawitasasymbolofcorruption,somethingthatwouldonlybringharmtomen.ZapataisthesinglepurefigureoftheRevolution,themanwhosaid,“Iwouldratherdieonmyfeetthanliveonmyknees,”and“Seekjusticefromtyrannicalgovernmentsnotwithyourhatinyourhandsbutwitharifleinyourfist,”hislegenduncomplicatedbecauseheonlyeverseeminglydidtherightthing,thegoodthing– notasaint,notaperfectman,butamanwhocamefromafamilyofwealth,andwhorejecteditalltothrowinhislotwiththelandless,thehopeless,whobecamethereluctantleaderofthecampesinos ofMorelosbecausetheyhadnooneelse.ItisZapatawholivesontoday,foreveraboveandbeyondallofthe‘HeroesoftheRevolution,’asastill-vital,vibrantsymbolof21stcenturymeaningandresistance– heistheonceandfutureking
ofMorelos,whosenameslivesonintheZapatistaArmyofNationalLiberationinsouthernMexicorightnow,evenasIwriteandyoureadthis.VivaZapata!
AsidefromVillaandZapata,thereweretwonewcomerswhoenteredthefrayatthistimetochallengeHuertaandvieforcontrolofthegovernment– oneofthethemwasthegovernorofCoahuila,Venustiano Carranza,whoraisedwhathecalledtheConstitutionalistArmyandmarchedsouth.HecombinedforceswithseveralminorwarchieftainsfromSonora,mostimportantlyAlvaroObregon,whowouldemergeasthecanniest,toughest,andmostdurableofalloftheheroesoftherevolution.
Venustiano Carranza
Obregonwasthemostgiftedmilitarystrategist,andwithhisgiftsandCarranza’sknowledgeofhowtorunthings,thetwomadeaformidableteam.OncethevariousrevolutionaryforceshaddefeatedHuerta’sforces,theConventionofAguas Calientes wascalledtotryandfindsomecommongroundforthemtomoveaheadwithplansforthefutureofMexico.Theyallfelloutquickly,withtheArmyoftheSouthretreatingbacktoMorelostocontinuetheirworkontheseizureofhaciendas,andVilla’sDivisionoftheNorthretainingcontrolofthecapital.OncelowonfoodVilla’sforceswereforcedtotaketothecountrysidetoforageforsuppliesandthatwaswhen
AlvaroObregon,andatright,ObregonandCarranza
theobregonistas wereabletodefeatthem,drivingthembackintothenorth,atwhichpointMexicoCitywassafelyunderthecontrolofCarranzaandObregon.
OncethesituationinthecapitalwasstabilizedCarranza,asprovisionalpresident,announcedthattherewouldbeaconstitutionalconventiontodraftanewconstitutiontomakesurethattheidealsoftheRevolutionwouldbeformalizedinanew,functionalgovernment.
THECONSTITUTIONOF1917
Thenewsystemwouldbeafederalgovernmentwithaseparationofpowersandnoreelection.AbicamerallegislatureandabillofrightswouldbeincludedalongwiththerestrictionplacedupontheChurchinthe19th century.Inaddition,theChurchwouldnotbeallowedtobeinvolvedinprimaryeducation,andprivateelementaryandsecondaryschoolswouldbesecularized.TheChurchwasalsoblockedfromowningoradministeringproperty,andclergywereforbiddentovote,holdpoliticaloffice,andMexicanstatesweregiventhe righttolicense(andthuslimit)thenumberofclergywithintheirborders.
Alllandandresourceswereconsideredtobeownedbythegovernment,andsocouldbedistributedorredistributedbysame.The newlogicwentlikethis:atonetimeitwasanecessitythatthedominanteconomicmodelbegreatencomiendas,andthenhaciendas;nowanewerrequirementwasforfieldsforthecampesinos.Thiswasgoingtobeatrickyproposition,becausetojusttakepropertyawayfromonetogivetoanotherwastothreattheentirelegalconceptofprivatepropertynationwide,andbesides,tosimplygivepoorpeoplelandwasto– what?Givethemlandtheycouldnotaffordtodoanythingwith?Andhowmuchland?Andthatwoulddependonthestate,andtheclimate,andwhatcouldbegrown,orgrazed,withthatlandinthatregion,andwouldn’tthegovernmenthavetocreatelendinginstitutionstomakecapitalavailabletothesenewsmallholderstogetthemstartedfinancially…?
Workersgainedtherighttounionize,bargaincollectively,andstrike.Therewasaguaranteedminimumwage,aneight-hourworkday,andasocialsecuritysystem,amongotherworkerbenefits.Debtpeonagewasbroughttoanend.Childlaborwasabolished.
Astheysay,“Romewasn’tbuiltinaday,”andittooksometime,throughthe1920s,andwellintothe1930s,beforeallofthesereformscouldbeimplemented.ButitwasthepromiseofwhattheconstitutioncoulddothatmeantsomuchtotheMexicanpeople,anditactuallywoulddoalot,far,farmorethanthestillbornConstitutionof1857haddoneeverdreamedofdoing.Andtopofthat,theConstitutionof1917wasthefirstgenuinelyrevolutionaryconstitutionofthe20th century,andMexico’sRevolutiontheharbingerofmanymoretocome:Russian,Cuban,ChineseCultural.AndwhenMexicanAmericans,andespeciallyChicanoactivistsinthelaterpartofthecenturywould talkaboutsocialjusticeandstandingupandfightingforwhatwasright,theywouldn’tbetalkingorthinkingsomuchabouttheAmerican‘Spiritof‘76’,butmoreaboutwhathadhappenedwhen“thewindthatsweptMexico”blewacrossthelandandmademythsofsomanyofthedeedsoftheirforefathers...
Venustiano CarranzaandtheConstitutionof1917,JorgeGonzalezCamarena,1967.Thistitleissortofironic,becauseCarranza,whowasnotoneoftheconvention’sdelegates,actuallyheardthroughaninformantthattheconstitutionwasturningouttobemoreliberalthanwewouldhaveliked,andsohesentObregontheretoturnthingsinamoreconservativedirection,littlesuspectingthatObregonwassecretlymoreliberalthanhe’deverleton– andObregonwentandthrewalltheweightofhismilitaryreputationbehindwhatthedelegatesweredoingandsodecisivelyforcedtheconstitutionintotheleftwarddirectionchanneltowardswhichithadbeentrending.
ToocoolNOTtoinclude– paintingsofCarranzaasatrainbyOctavioOcampo;theyhavenotitlesasfarasIknow.
Historica 1,JorgeGonzalezCamarena,1968(?)
Zapata,assassinatedbythegovernmentofCarranzain1919becausehewastoobelovedbythepeopleofMorelos,andCarranzaandObregonweretooafraidofleavinghimdowntherewithhisbaseofsupport–theysimplycouldn’tbelievehe’dremainanythingbutathreattothestabilityandlegitimacyofthenewgovernment,ifthepaceoflandreformdidnotmeetastandardthatexistedinthemindsofhimandhisfollowers.Andtheymayhavebeenright.Atanyrate,theysummonedhimthrougharusebywayofamanhetrustedtoameeting,andhewasmetbyafusilladeofbullets.Atfarleftisthefamousimageofhiscorpse,andatcloseright,apaintingbyCamarena,seemingtosuggestZapataasthenear-apotheosisoftheRevolutioninhumanform.
AmericanCivilization– LatinAmerica,JoseClementeOrozco,1932-34.Zapataasthewearyavatarofeveryfailedpeasantmovementinthehistoryoftheregion,besetonallsidesbytheforcesofgreed,governmentalcorruption,andmilitarismo – ai-yi-yi!
The1952filmVivaZapataisworthseeingforallsortsofreasons,especiallyifyou’reafilmorlitgeek– directedbyEliaKazan,writtenbyJohnSteinbeck,itmanagestomarrythepreeminentthematicconcernsofbothofthosetoweringmid-20th centuryAmericanartistsintoonenot-entirelysuccessful,buttotallycompelling,cinematicpackage,andwiththemostimportantAmericanactorofalltime,MarlonBrandoatthehelm,skinalldarkenedupsohecanplayaMexican,andwithfiltersinhisnostrilssothey’llflaremoreconvincinglyMexican-- ?Howcanyoubeatit?Definitelyworthyourtimeandrentalcash,ifyou’reinterestedinfilm,andmostimportantlyhistoryasportrayedinfilm.Certainlynot100%historicallyaccurate,notbyanymeans,butnonethelessworthseeing.Checkitout,thendosomegooglingaround,andyoucangetthelowdownonallthatwasrightandwrongwithit.
PunkrockZapata,21st centuryicon
Pancho Villagotboughtoff– ofcoursehedid.HewasanotherpainintheassforCarranzaandObregonandlong-termstability,andsolongashewasrunningaroundthenorth,thrillingthepeople,andperiodicallycrossingtheborderandshootingupsmallAmericantownsandcreatingproblemswiththeU.S.government…yeah,somethinghadtobedoneabouthim.HereheiswithJohnJ.“BlackJack”Pershing,whowassentafterhim,andhuntedhiminMexicowith5,000menfrom1916-17– ultimately,whenthehuntwascalledoff,theytookthisphototogether.Truthisstrangerthanfiction,right?Butanyway,finallyin1920afterthe
assassinationofCarranza(byanagentofOberegon’s!),Villasentwordtotheinterimpresidentthathewasreadytolaydownhisarmsandswearallegiancetothegovernment.Andso,inreturnfora25,000acrehaciendainChihuahua,andamnestygrantedtohislastloyal250guerillafighters,hewasallowedtoshuffleoffofthestageofhistoryandintoretirementasagentlemanlandowner.
Butnotquite.
In1923Villawasassassinatedwhenhewasrunningerrandsintown,havinggonethatdaywithouthisbodyguards.Althoughtitisunknownwhowasbeyondhismurder,thebestguessisthegovernment,becauseVilla,perhapsboredinretirementandyearningoncemoreforglory,hadbeenmakingsomenoiseaboutrunningforthepresidency.
AlvaroObregonwouldbeassassinatedonlyfiveyearslaterin1928byadisturbedCatholicpriestwhosnuckintotherestaurantwherehewasbeinghonoredatabanquetdisguisedasanartist,andwasabletogettoObregon’stablebywayofacaricaturehehaddone oftheformerpresident(onlyinMexico!),whereheshothimfiveorsixtimesintheback.WithObregon’spassing,sopassedthelast ofthegreat‘HeroesoftheRevolution.’
Pancho Villahasbeenportrayedinmanybadmovies,buttheoneREALLYgoodoneisthis,thetruestoryofhowanAmericanfilmcrewfollowedVilla’sarmyaround,literallymakingamovieofhisactualbattlesduringtheRevolutiontobeshowntoAmericanmovie-goingaudiencesbackhomeintheU.S.Itreallygivesyouasenseofthemany-facetedcharacterofVilla,andAntonioBanderasdoesabang-upjobplayingPancho allthewaytothehiltandthensome– Mexicanswere,predictably,outragedthataSpaniardshouldbecastasoneoftheirbelovednationalheroes,butholycow,you’vegottoberealisticabouttheeconomiclogisticsofgettingmoviesmade– youneedanameabovethetitlethatwillinterestpeople,andBanderaswasanamethatcoulddoit.Wouldn’ttheyratherhavethemovieWITHBanderasratherthanNOmovieatall?
AllianceofthePeasantandtheIndustrialWorker,DiegoRivera – Inthe1920stheSecretaryofPublicEducation,JoseVasconcelos,taskedavarietyofMexicanartistswiththechallengeofmemorializingtheidealsoftheRevolutioninvariousmediumsofart,primarily publicmuralsofheroicsize,sothatthepeopleofMexicoshouldneverforgetwhathadbeenfoughtforduringthosedifficultyearsof1910-1920.Manymuralists,butprimaryamongstthem“LosTres Grandes,”theThreeGreatOnes,DiegoRivera,DavidAlfaroSiqueiros,andJoseClementeOrozco,receivedgenerouscommissionsfromthegovernment,andtheyrespondedbycreating,notjustthen,butthroughouttheircareers,
JoseVasconcelos
worksofartthatattemptedtotellthestorynotjustoftherevolutionarytimesofMexico,butofallofMexicanhistoryandindeed,oftheAmericasandoftheworld.
ThePartitioningoftheLand,DiegoRivera,1920s
TheBreakingoftheBread,TheNightoftheRich,WallStreetBanquet,DiegoRivera,1930s
TheRevolutionaries,detailfromTheRevolutionAgainstthePorfirian AgainstthePorfirian Dictatorship,DavidAlfaroSiqueiros,1957
…andjusttogiveyouasenseofthescopeofthemural.
Lastly,somequickimagesofthenamelesssoldiersofMexicowhofoughtfortheircountry.
Soldaderas,or“adelitas”astheyweresometimescalled,afterPancho Villa’sfightinggirlfriendAdelita whorodebehindhimwithaguninherhand.
TheTrench,JoseClementeOrozco,1926
Cancióndeesperanza(Songofhope),JorgeGonzalezCamarena,1975
The United States Enters
the 20th Century:Progressivism and
Imperialism
Progressivepropagandaposter,1910sYou’vealldrivenbyconstructionsiteslikethebelow,wherethetemporarywoodenwallshavebeen“bombed”byendlessnumbersofposters,promotingsomething,usuallyrecords,movies,concerts…orpoliticalissues.TheProgressiveswerenotjustskilledatthis,theyessentiallyinventedthetactictoraisepublicawarenessaboutproblemsconfrontingsociety,problemssuchaschildlabor,politicizedintheposteratrightandfollowing,andalsocapturedintheaccompanyingimagesaswell.
GeorgeBellowswasanaffluentmemberoftheupperclasswhobecameinterestedinpaintingthe“reallife”ofNewYorkCity– itsstreets,itspeople,itsdailylife;butthiswassomethingwhichhadneverbeendone.Hewentintotheslumsandreallylookedatthepeoplethereandtheirlivingconditions,andthefirstpaintingheexecutedonthisnewsubjectmatterwasCliffDwellers.
ThetitlewasinspiredbyatriphehadtakentotheSouthwestwherehesawtheruinsofthePueblopeoplesatCanyondeChelly andothersites;tohim,thecrowdedstreets;thetenementbuildingswiththeirlaundrylines;andfolksshoutingdowntothestreetanduptothewindowandthefireescapes;thehustlebustleofeverydaylifewerereminiscentofwhatitmusthavebeenliketoliveamongsttheIndiansofthepastamongstthosecanyonsandmesas.
BellowswasnoProgressive,butProgressivereformers,seeinghisworkingalleryshows,wereinspiredtodointotheslumsthemselvestoinvestigatethelivingconditionsthere.Inadvertently,Bellows’workbecameoneofmanysourcesofinformationthathelpedpavethewaytosocialreform.
CliffDwellers,GeorgeBellows,1913
Femalegarmentworkerinsweatshop,1903
WorkingconditionsliketheseweretobefoundineveryworkshopandsmallerfactoryintheUnitedStatesand,indeed,theindustrializedworld.TheseprovedtoberallyingpointsforProgressivereformers,resultinginthecreationofsuchorganizationsastheWomen’sTradeUnionLeagueandtheNewYorkStateFactoryCommission.SimilarorganizationswereestablishedinotherAmericanindustrialcities,andcity- andstate-levelcommissionspassedlegislationthatcreatedstrictcodestoprotectthelivesofworkers,aswellasprovidingforinspectionsofworkshopsandfactoriesbymunicipaland/orstateagentswhosetaskwastoensurethatthenewlawswerebeingfollowed.
TheLandlordsGame,ElizabethMagie,1904
Severaldifferentversionsofthegamehadbeenmanufacturedandsoldgoingbacktwentyyears,eachwiththesamebasictheme:“Getrichandshownomercy.”ThisisthefirstcopyrightedversionofthegamethatwouldlaterbecomeMonopoly (seenextimage),whichyou’veallplayed,andifyouhaven’t,whatareyoudoinghere?GooutandbuyyourselfaMonopolygame!
MONOPOLY,1935HaveyouevertakenaminutetoreallythinkabouttheMonopolyboard?TheRailroadsandUtilities,theCommunityChestandChance?Stopforamomentandtrytorelatethegametotheeconomicprinciplesthathavebeendiscussedinthebook,lectures,andSlideshares.
“TheModernColossusofRailroads,”JosephKepler,1879
Withaclevertipofthehattotheancientworld’sColossusofRhodes,Kepler’scartoonshowsCorneliusVanderbiltasacolossalcontrollernotjustoftherailroadsbutoftheirtracksandstationsthroughhiscontroloffellowrailroadtycoonsJayGouldandCyrusW.Fields.Totheleft,justbelowCV’shand,abannerfliesabovethedepotproclaimingFields’unofficialmotto:“Manynickelsstolenaremillionsgained.”Monopoly, anybody?
“Next,”JosephKepler,1904ThiscriticismofthepowerofStandardOilshowsthelargestcompanyintheworldasamalignoctopus,itstentacleswrappedaroundthepowersoftherailroads,theshippingindustry,thestatelegislatures,assortedpoliticiansandbusinessmen,Congress,andit’sreachingfortheWhiteHouse,thelastgreatpoweritneedsfortotaleconomicdominationofallitsurveys.
“Whatafunnylittlegovernment...”HoraceTaylor,1899
AndhereishowStandardOilgotthatpowerful:JohnD.Rockefeller’sbribesofcorruptgovernmentofficialswhich,accordingtoTaylor,aretakencareofinthesamemeticulousfashionwithwhichajewelerinspectsararegem(noticethejeweler’sloupeinJDR’seyewithwhichhecarefullyinspectshispayoffs).This,accordingtoTaylor,willresultinanAmericanlandscapecoveredinbarrelsofoil,andtheCongressreducedtonothingmorethanaStandardOilRefinery.
“JacktheGiantKiller,”1904,PuckMagazineTheodoreRooseveltasJack,thegiant-killeroffaerietaleandfable,standsproudlyatcenter,wieldingamightyswordwiththewords“PublicService”onitsblade.Fromeachsideofthecanyon-likecitystreetscomethegiants,butwritinmodernterms:Rockefeller,Gould,Hill,Oxnard,andMorgan,captainsofindustryorrobberbarons?Intheirowneyes,certainly,theformer;intheeyesofthemajorityofAmericans,thelatter.Thequestionthen,mustbe–howcansuchatinyherodefeatthesemightygiants,thesearchitectsofthetrust,thesemonopolists?Sincethepowerofmoney(theNewYorkStockExchange)isofftooneside(directlytotheleftofRoosevelt),andthepowerofrighteousnessisalignedwiththePresidentrightdownthemiddleofthestreet(thechurchinthedistance),theimplicationwouldseemtobethatthelittleguyisgoingtowin,asindeedRooseveltdid– forty-fourmonopolieswere“busted”duringhispresidency.
Rooseveltasthemightytamerofwildbeasts,aswellasmen– hereyouseevisualsymbolsof,fromlefttoright,thetrusts,theG.O.P.(RepublicanParty),andvariousforeigncountries,amongthem,SanDomingo,Panama,andthePhilippines.Intheimageatright,it’sallabout
thetrusts.
YetanothercommentaryonRoosevelt’strust-busting,thisoneriffsoffofthefamoushuntingtriptoMississippihetookduringthefirsttermofhispresidency.AbearhadbeenattackedbythedogsandchainedtoatreebythetimeTRarrivedonthescene,Hewasaskedifhewantedtoshootthebear,andhedeclined,sayingthatitwouldbeunsportsmanlike,butthatsomeoneshouldputthebearoutofitsmisery.Thisstorygotwidecoverageinthepress(asdideverythingTRdidorsaid),andseveraldifferentbrightfellowshadtheideaatthesametimetomanufacturestuffedbearsforchildren,callingthem“TeddyBears.”Withinamatterofyears,everychildinAmericahadateddybearwithintheirfirstfewyears,andeventuallytheteddybearwasaworldwidephenomenon.
TeddyandHisBear
TheodoreRooseveltandJohnMuir,YosemiteValley,1903. Duringhispresidency,TheodoreRooseveltsignedintoexistencefivenationalparks,18nationalmonuments,55nationalbirdsanctuariesandwildliferefuges,and150nationalforests. Therehasneverbeenapresidentwhowassodeeplycommittedtoconservationism(conserving,orwiselyusingthecountry'snationalresources). Asaboy,theyoungRooseveltwasoftenfoundsmellingofformaldehyde,asoneofhisfavoritepastimeswasamateurtaxidermy;anotherwassittinginthewoodsnearhishomeforhoursonend,watchingthemovementsofbirdsandmakingcarefulnotationsontheminhisjournal. Asaman,hewouldfollowhispresidencywithasix-monthsafariinAfrica,duringwhichtimehewouldshootandkilloversixhundredanimals,includinganumberofelephants. Hewas,always,abundleofcontradictions.
RooseveltandConservationism
TheodoreRooseveltandJohnMuir,YosemiteValley,1903
Atthetime,noonebattedaneyeatthis,andindeedcheeredonourgloriouspresident– butwith21st centuryeyes,wecannothelpbutlookbackatitwithhorror– that’scalledpresentismfolks,andinstudyinghistory,it’syourgreatestenemy– bewareofit,andwatchforitateverystep.Beverycarefulofjudgingthepastwithmodernsensibilities.
Thepresent-daysystemofnationalparksandforests,inlargepartalegacyofTheodoreRoosevelt'sinterestinenvironmentalismandconservationism- thankyou,Teddy!
Oneofthehottesttopicsofconversationtoday(earlyApril,2016)hastodowithwhatroletheUnitedStatesshouldplayintheworld,intermsofeconomics(Outsourcingjobs?Globaltradetreaties?),politics(Immigration–buildaTrump-Wallontheborder?AllowMuslimrefugeesfromtheMiddleEastintoourcountry?),andinternationalpeaceandstability(HowfardowegotoreducethepowerofISIS?Drones,footsoldiers– nukes?).AttherootofallofthisliesadebatethathasinflamedAmericanpassionstosomedegreeoranothereversincethe1840s,andthatis– arewebetteroffasanisolationistnationwhomainlykeepstoitsownaffairs,orareourinterestsbetterservedbyengagingwiththerestofthenationsoftheworldsoastobecomeoneof,ifnotTHE,shapersofglobalpoliciesandopinions?IsolationismorInternationalism?
OneofthebestwaystounderstandtheissuesinvolvedinthisdebateistoexaminethefactorsbehindtheUnitedStatestransitionaround1900fromanisolationistnation(whichiswhatwehadbeenduringthe19th century,forthemostpart)toaninternationalist,andevenanimperialist,nation.
Yourtextdiscussesseveralthingsthatwentintoestablishingthe“foundationsofempire”:WilliamSeward’semphasisontheimportanceofaccesstoglobalmarketssoastokeepahealthyeconomyandthus,ahappyAmericanpeople;JosiahStrong’sargumentsinfavorofanextensionofAmericanpowergloballytospreadliberty,Christianityandcivilizationtootherpeoplesupposedlylackingintheseareas;andformernavalofficerAlfredMahan’ssuggestionsforanexpansionofAmericanseapowersoastoprotectourinterestsabroad.
ButthereareseveralotherfactorsIwouldliketoidentifysoastoreallyroundoutyourunderstandingofthistopic,andI’dliketostartwiththehistorianFrederickJacksonTurner.In1893TurnerreadapaperbeforetheAmericanHistoricalAssociationattheirmeetinginChicago,entitled“TheSignificanceoftheFrontierinAmericanHistory.”Inthisessay,TurnerarguedthatthedistinctiveAmericanpersonalityhadbeenformedonthewesternfrontierwherecivilizedmanmetandtamedthesavagewilderness.Aseachfrontierwasapproachedandconquered,Europeanwaysofthinking,behaving,problem-solvingwerecastaside,andanew
THEBIRT
HOFAM
ERICAN
IMPE
RIAL
ISM
American identity was created, with easily recognizable personality traits that people the world over thought of as“American” – a belief in democracy; a propensity for sudden action and violence; an insistence on fair play andequality; a casual attitude toward social proprieties. At the same that this new personality was developing overseveral generations of westward expansion, each new frontier line became a challenge that Americans took up –crossing mountain ranges, bridging rivers, conquering and expanding into regions that were controlled by hostileNative American peoples – these were all tests of the strength, fortitude, and intelligence of the Americans thatchallenged these frontiers. Turner argued that from the early 1600s into the late 1800s, there had always beensome western frontier that fired the imagination and drive of Americans, that stood before them and said, “Goahead – I DARE you!” Thesechallenges, according to Turner,were part of what had made usgreat up to that point. But, the1890 census report revealedsomething that was one of themajor points in Turner’s “frontierthesis”: according to the census,there was no frontier left in theUnited States. No mighty riveror mountain to conquer, noregion to expand into – fromeast coast to west, and fromnorthern border to southern,Americans had, if not filled upthe entire country, populated itto such a degree that there wasno part of the United States thatcould anymore be termedunknown and unconquered – nofrontier, all gone bye-bye.
(Idon’tknowwheretheblue-ish tintonthismapcamefrom,sorry!)
ThisknowledgepromptedTurnertoask:Ifhavingafrontieriswhatmadeuswhoweare,andhelpedtomakeusgreat– whatwillbecomeofAmericanowthatthefrontierisgone?Willwebecomecomplacent,lazy,degenerate?WillwelosethespecialAmerican“mojothatmadeusgo-go”-- ?(toquoteanoldbluessong)Turnerdidnotcommithimselfonewayoranother– hehadnoanswers,justquestionsthatestablishedanargument.
Noonehadanswers,notreally– buttheydidhaveopinions,andmanyofthepeoplewhoreadtheJournalofAmericanHistory,wherethepaperwassoonpublished,sharedtheopinionthatthecountrywasgoingtobeindeeptroubleifsomesubstitutefortheAmericanfrontierwasnotdiscovered,somenewchallenge,somenewgoal.Manyofthosepeoplewerepowerfulbusinessmen,congressmen,militaryleaders,peoplewithnameslikeAlfredMahan,HenryCabotLodge,WilliamMcKinley,and…TheodoreRoosevelt.Thesemenknewoneanother,talked,hadlunch,exchangedletters,andagreedthatTurner’sargumentwassound,andinbelievingthis,theyallfirmeduptheircollectivebeliefintheaforementionedSeward/Strong/Mahanaxisoflogic,whichistosay,thattheUnitedStateshadtoseekoverseaspossessions...territories...colonies.
Inadditiontowhathasalreadybeendiscussed,theissueofdomesticproductivitywasalsoofconcernforthesewould-beempirebuilders.TheCivilWarhadkickedAmericanindustryintooverdrive,andwitheachyearthatwentbyproductiononlyincreased,anddramatically.Twoexamplesshouldsufficeasproof:in1860,13tonsofsteelweresmeltedandby1900,theannualtotalwas11,000tons;withpetroleum,1859hadseen2,000barrelsextracted,andby1900thenumberhadrisento63,000.Cotton,tobacco,rice;hogs,cattle,chickens;timber,coal,tin– ineverypossiblewaytheharvestingofresourceswasgrowing,leadinginevitablytoaterrificaccelerationinAmericanproduction,butalongwiththisgrowthcameproblems,primaryamongthem:whowasgoingtobuyall
ofthisstuff?Wewereproducingfarmorethanourdomesticmarketcouldconsume,andevenmorethanwhatwecouldselltoourtraditionaltradingpartners.Wewerenowamongthetop4-5industrialpowersintheworld,andyettheydidnotpossessthesesameproblems,sowhatwasitthattheyhadthatwedidnothave,thatallowedthemtogrowandgrowwithoutthesamesortofgrowingpainsthattheU.S.wasexperiencing?Inshort,whattheyhadwerecolonies,whichwereusefulnotonlybecausetheycouldprovidethemothercountrywithrawmaterialsatlowcost(andoftentheseresourcesweretotallyunavailabletothecolonialpowersinthefirstplace,likerubber,forexample),theycouldalsoprovidenew,controlledmarketsforthegoodsproducedfromtherawmaterials,effectivelypreventingtheproblemthatwasplaguingtheUnitedStatesatthistime.
Thereisone,finalblockwemustaddtoourunder-standingofthefoundationsofempireinthelate19th century,andthatisthedesireforwhatLouisXIV,one-timeKingofFrance,referredtoasgloire,whichinEnglishtranslatesintoglory.Toputthisinstreetterms,fromLouis’pointofview,havingcoloniesmadeFrance…cool...bitchen...bad-ass...bling-bling...GLORIOUS.Havingcoloniesmeantthatyouwereanimperialpower,rulerofanempire– likeancientRome.Buthangon--let’sstopandmakeentirelysurethatyouallunderstandwhatanempireactuallyis.
Imperialism – the extension of control by a nation over the territories, inhabitants, and resources of
areas outside of the nation’s boundaries.Aseriousfontforaserioustopic.
Soanempireiswhatyoubecomeonceyouplacedotherpeople’slandsunderyourowngovernment,therebyalsocontrollingthemandtheirnaturalresources.
TheUnitedStateshaddonealotofgrowingduringthe1800s.In1800,wehadonlybeenanindependentnationfor17years,notlongawayfromthenestofimperialEngland.
Butsincethenwehadgonefrom13statestonearly50;spread2500mileswestacrossNorthAmerica;foughtasecondwaragainsttheBritish;defeateddozensofIndiannationsinwar,nottomentionbeatenMexicoinanun-justwarandthenstolenhalfofherterritory;foughttheCivilWaramongstourselves,tothatpointthemostdestructivewarinhumanhistory;andrecoveredfromthatwartobecomebigger,stronger,andmoreproductivethanever,ina
successstoryunlikeanyotherinthehistoryoftheworld.
ButformanyAmericanpowerbrokers(thosebusiness/government/militarymenmentionedearlier),noneofthiswasevergoingtoREALLYmatterunlesswecouldalsoshowthatwecouldgetourhandsonthesamethingsthatgavesomuchGLOIRE totheotherguysintheMostPowerfulNationsInTheWorldclub,andthosethingswere– youguessedit– colonies.
togetintotheMostPowerfulNationsInTheWorldClubalongsideGermany,France,andEngland.Sowhenallissaidanddone,thefactorsthatledtotheU.S.becominganimperialpowerbyacquiringoverseasterritories/colonieswere:§ theWilliamSewardvisionoftheimportanceofaccesstoglobalmarkets§ JosiahStrong’schampioningoftheneedforAnglo-Saxon/Americandominanceof
the“lesser”peoplesoftheworldinordertocivilizeandChristianizethem§ AlfredMahan’sargumentsinfavorofanexpandednavalcapabilitytodefendour
interests§ FrederickJacksonTurner’s“frontierthesis,”whichledtoaconcernoveralossofthat
specialAmericanvitality,andtheneedfornew“frontiers”toconquer§ AsteadilyincreasingAmericanindustrialproductivity§ Andlastly,adesireforgloire,soastobereckonedasoneofthepowerplayersinthe
worldalongsideGermany,France,andEngland
WreckoftheUSSMaine,precipitatoroftheU.S.'sentryintotheSpanishAmericanWar
WhygotowaragainstSpainonbehalfofCuba?YourbooknotesthattherewasconcernovertheultimatefateofAmerican-ownedsugarplantationsontheisland,butitwasmuchmorethanthat.Between1858-1893,$103millionhadbeenchanneledintoCubanenterprisesbyAmericaninvestors,andmorethan$50millionofthathadbeeninvestedinjustthelastdecade.Spainhadbeenafinancially-crippledcountrysincetheearly1700s,andhadnoinvestmentcapitaltosinkintoanything,letaloneamodernizationofCubaninfrastructure.Butatthatsametime,Cubansugar,andotherexports,werebecomingevenmoredesirable,soitwasimperativethatCubahave
railroads,tomovetherawsugarcanefromfieldstorefineries(priortothistimealltransportationwasdonebyox-carts);modernizedsugarmills;andupgradedportfacilitiestobetterallowlarger,modernshipseasieraccessfortheimport-exporttrade.Spainmayhavehadnomoneyforanyofthis– butAmericaninvestorsdid,andsodealswerestruckwiththeSpanishgovernmenttoallowthemodernizationofCubaninfrastructurebywayofAmericancapital,andalongthewaymanyoftheseAmericantycoonsboughtthemselvesexpansiveengenos deazucar(sugar-producingestates)ontheislandwheresugarwascultivatedandtheyenjoyedthenicestmonthsoftheyearintheCubanclimate,insteadoffreezingbackhomeinNewYork,Boston,Philadelphia,orChicago.
Solet’sconsiderthatsumagain:morethan$100million,whichtranslates,morethanacenturylater,intowellover$1billionmoderndollars.DoyouthinkthecurrentU.S.governmentwouldbeconcernedifabillionAmer-ican dollarswereatstakeinsomecountrywhereacivilwarwasraging?Doyouthinkthearmedforcesmightgetinvolved?Nothardtoimagine,right?That’stheessentialreasonforourdecisiontogotowaragainstSpain,butthatwasnotthewaythethingwassoldtothepublic– yourtextdiscussestheletterleakedtothenewspaperswhereinPresidentMcKinleywasinsultedbytheSpanishambassador,butthenewspapersalsopublishedmanystoriesaboutthe”bravelittleCuba,takinguparmsagainstitsmonstrousimperialmotherSpain,andallinthecauseoffreedom.”Ifyousubstitute“UnitedStates”forCubaand“England”forSpain,youcouldbetalkingabouttheAmericanRevolution.Thisanglewasusedandre-useduntilAmericanswereinlovewiththenotionofCubanindepenence,throwing“CubaLibre!” partiesandraisingmoneytohelpsendgunstotheCubanrebels.BythetimetheUSSMaine wassunk,mostAmericanswereprimedandreadytogotowaronbehalfofourbraveCubanobrothersandsisters.ItwasawarthatwasboughtandsoldtotheAmericanpublicwithverylittleeffort.
Butthebestpartwasatthelast.Afterwehadchargedinattheeleventhhourand“helped”theCubansdefeattheSpanish(theycouldhavefinisheditupalonegivenabitmoretime,butwerehappytoseetheirbigYankeebrotherslendingahand),wemadeitprettyclearthat“independence”wasnotgoingtobeeverythingtheCubansthoughtitwouldbe.TheUnitedStateswasthefirstindependentAmericannation,andassuchhadsetagreatexampleforotheryoungAmericannationstofollow,whichiswhysomanyoftheLatinAmerican“declarationsofindependence”fromSpainandPortugalhavelanguagethatpaystributetoThomasJeffersonandourDeclaration;it’swhytheyallwrote“constitutions”afterbecomingindependent,inwhichyoualwaysseetheindeliblestampoftheinfluenceofEstados Unidos,ypor que no?Que bueno!Soafterthefightingwasconcludedandworkhadstartedoncleaningupthemanywar-tornareasofCuba,theCubanpatriotsconvenedaconstitutionalconvention
inordertocreateanewgovernmentforthemselves,thefirstintheirfourcenturyhistory.Butwhiletheywereworkingonthat,theUnitedStatesCongresswasworkingonsomethingcalledthePlattAmendment,andoncetheygotitdone,theysentitofftothecommanderoftheAmericanforcesinCuba,aGeneralWilliamShafter,tohaveitpresentedtotheCubanConstitutionalConvention.YourbookmakesitveryclearwhattheAmendmentsaid,butletmereiterateonekeypartinbrief:“ThatthegovernmentofCubaconsentsthattheUnitedStatesmayexercisetherighttointerveneforthepreservationofCubanindependence,themaintenanceofagovernmentadequatefortheprotectionoflife,property,andindividualliberty,andfordischargingtheobligationswithrespecttoCubaimposedbythetreatyofParisontheUnitedStates,nowtobeassumedandundertakenbythegovernmentofCuba.”WhatthisreallymeantwasthattheU.S.woulddeterminewhowouldrunCuba(whichtheydidforthethenextfifty-plusyearsuptotheCubanRevolution),andifthingsweren’tbeingrunthewaythe
theU.S.wanted,thenlife,property,andliberty(primarilyAmericaninallthreecases)wouldbepreservedthroughtheuseofAmericanmilitarypower.Inthecartoonnextdoorhere,youseeCubanindependencebeingassertedevenasallofwhatmadeSpanishrulesowretchedistoppling:thethroneisproppedupon‘antagonismtocivilization,’16th centurymethods,’‘cruelty,’‘corruptaristocracy,’andthethronesupports‘mortgages,’‘debt,’a‘depletedtreasury,’and‘immenseloans.’
Noneofthiscanbeproppedupmuchlongerbythe‘depletedarmy,’‘Spanishpride,’‘ora‘fourthclassnavy’…buttheCubanshadlittletonoideathatoncetheAmericansgotinvolved,wewouldhijacktheirnewly-wonindependence.Whatwe’ddonetoMexicointheMexicanAmericanWar(1846-48)mighthavemadethemabitnervous,butithadbeenahalfcenturysincethen,andtheyprobablythoughtweweresatisfiedbywhatwas,perhaps,thegretaestterritorialrip-offinhistory.Butapparentlynot,astheysoonfoundout.
InthePhilippinestheU.S.NavygotintothefightwithSpainmonthsaheadofourinvolvementintheCaribbean,becauseanAmericanfleetwasalreadythere,havingbeenconvenientlylocatedoffoftheshoreofChinawhenwordwasreceivedtoproceedtothemainislandofLuzon.TheSpanishweredefeatedquickly,andthentheFilipinoslearnedthesamelessonsoontobelearnedbytheCubans– thattheU.S.intendedtostay,andtheyhadgottenridofonecolonialmasteronlytoacquireanother.ThePhilippineswereaperfectbaseofoperationsfromwhichtolaunchaninten-sivetradeinvasionofAsia,butChinainparticular.ThecartoontotherightpaintsaperfectpictureofthepointofviewofAmericanbusinessandgovernmentleadersoftheday.
BelowisapagetakenfromHowardZinn’s legendaryAPeople’sHistoryoftheUnitedStates (whichsomeofyoumayhaveread).
TherewasheatedargumentintheUnitedStatesaboutwhetherornottotakethePhilippines.Asonestoryhasit,PresidentMcKinleytoldagroupofministersvisitingtheWhiteHousehowhecametohisdecision:
BeforeyougoIwouldliketosayjustawordaboutthePhilippinebusiness....ThetruthisIdidn'twantthePhilippines,andwhentheycametousasagiftfromthegods,Ididnotknowwhattodowiththem....Isoughtcounselfromallsides-- DemocratsaswellasRepublicans-- butgotlittlehelp.
IthoughtfirstwewouldonlytakeManila;thenLuzon,thenotherislands,perhaps,also.
IwalkedtheflooroftheWhiteHousenightafternightuntilmidnight;andIamnotashamedtotellyou,gentlemen,thatIwentdownonmykneesandprayedAlmightyGodforlightandguidancemorethanonenight.Andonenightlateitcametomethisway-- Idon'tknowhowitwas,butitcame:
1)ThatwecouldnotgivethembacktoSpain-- thatwouldbecowardlyanddishonorable.2)ThatwecouldnotturnthemovertoFranceorGermany,ourcommercialrivalsintheOrient-- thatwouldbebadbusinessanddiscreditable.3)Thatwecouldnotleavethemtothemselves-- theywereunfitforself-government-- andtheywouldsoonhaveanarchyandmisruleoverthereworsethanSpain'swas;and4)ThattherewasnothingleftforustodobuttotakethemallandtoeducatetheFilipinos,andupliftandcivilizeandChristianizethem,andbyGod'sgracedotheverybestwecouldbythem,asourfellowmenforwhomChristalsodied.
AndthenIwenttobedandwenttosleepandsleptsoundly.
TheFilipinosdidnotgetthesamemessagefromGod.IftheyknewGodwasonthesideoftheU.S.,maybetheywouldhavegivenupratherlose200,000oftheirpeopleinthefighting– forwhowouldbesofoolishastoresistthewillofGod?(Thatlastlineinitalicsismine– Ihopethesarcasmiscleartoyou.)
TheterritoriesingreenwereacquiredbytheUnitedStates between1867(beginningwiththepurchaseof AlaskafromRussia(Go,SarahPalin!)and1917(whenaprotectoratewasestablishedovertheVirginIslands).Asyoucansee,thesePacificIslandacquisitions,startingwithHawaii,hadcreatedaperfect“hopscotchgame”ofmaritimetradeandre-fuelingstationsbetweentheU.S.andAsia.
“HurrahforImperialism!”F.G.Atwood,LIFEMagazine,1898AblindfoldedUncleSam,armedtotheteeth,goesrushingheadlong overtheedgeofacliff. Clearly LIFEMagazine wasnotentirelyconfidentinthecountry'snew,imperialisticstance.
THEPANAMACANAL,1903
AtthistimetheUnitedStatesconstructedthePanamaCanal,andthisissomethingthatshouldtakeupatleastafewminutes of ourtime. ThenotionofacanalthroughsomepartofCentralAmericatoprovidequickeraccessfromtheAtlantictothePacifichad occupiedthethinkingoftheSpanishEmpiresincethe1540s,butalloftheirideasweresoill-conceivedandthusenormouslycostlythat theynevergotofftheground. Inthe1880s,theFrench,havingfailedtocompletetheSuezCanalandsoldouttotheBritish,receivedpermissionfromtheColombiangovernmenttoconstructacanalacrosstheIsthmusofPanama,andtheyworkedonitforaboutadozenyears,slowlybutsurelyfailing(again)(theFrench…)andalongcametheBritishwithasmile,readytobuythemout(again),justashappyas theycouldbetosinktheirteethintoyetanotherunbelievablylucrativecanalproject,but— holdeverything! TheUnitedStatesexpressedseriousinterest
intakingovertheproject,andsinceitwasinourpartoftheworld,theBritishwerenotterriblykeenovertheideaofirritatingus;also,knowingthatwithGermanpowerontheriseonthecontinent(WorldWarIwascoming,andtheycouldkindofsenseit),theythoughtitmightbebetterinthenextdecadeortwotohavetheU.S.feelinggoodtowardthem,so...theybowedoutofthearrangement,andleftituptoustoarrangematterswiththeColombiansaswesawfit.
SoatreatywashammeredoutwherebyColombiawouldbepaid$10millionupfront,witha$250,000annualleaseforastripoflandsixmileswide— thiswouldbethecanalzoneacrossPanama,andColombiaagreedtothedeal,theU.S.Senateratifiedit,butthentheColombianSenatebackedoutatthelastminutewhentheydecidedtheycouldholdtheUnitedStateshostageformoremoney.
Thisiswhereitgetsinteresting. Rooseveltwasoutragedatwhathesawaslowdowndouble-dealingandanungentlemanlywayofdoingbusinessonthepartofColombia. IttranspiredthatwithintheprovinceofPanamathattherewereseparatistgroupswhohadlongharboredadesiretorebelfromColombiaanddeclareindependence— PanamahadalwaysbeenthepartofColombiathatwasignored,forgotten,the“panhandle”thatstuckofftoonesideofthecountryproper,neverreallyinvestedin,orcaredabout,andinPanamatherewereseveralgenerationsofresentmentthathadbuiltupoverthis—RooseveltsentinAmericanagentswhotoldtheprospectiverebels,“Ifyourebel,wewillsupportyou!”andsoinNovember,1903,thesePanamanian“rebels"declaredindependence,U.S.warshipsblockedColombianshipsfrommovingintodoanythingaboutit,andanewnationwasbornnamed— youguessedit!— PANAMA,andthefirstorderofbusinesswasfortheU.S.torecognizePanama’sexistenceasasovereignnation;thenforthatnewnationtogranttheUnitedStates,hernewbenefactor,a99-yearleaseonthecanalzone,inreturnforwhichtheU.S.wouldbuildthecanal,andprotectit(andnotcoincidentallyprotectPanamafromanyaggressionbyColombia. TheoriginalfinancialarrangementwithColombiawasagreedtobyPanama,andtheU.S.boughtall
oftheFrenchequipmentthatwasthereatthedig,aswellastheFrenchrailwayinfrastructurethathadbeenlaidtoaccommodatethebuildingproject.
ThePanamaCanalwasseenbyTheodoreRooseveltandthoseofalikemindasessentialtothelong-termgeopoliticalstrategicinterestsoftheUnitedStates. ForgetabouttheinterestsoffastandefficienttradeconnectionsfromAtlantictoPacific— whataboutintimeofwar ifwewerefightingatwo-oceanwar? Thismayhaveseemedlikecrazytalkin1903…butitsuremadesenseseveraldecadeslaterduringWorldWarII— atthattimetheCanalwasabsolutelyinvaluable. So— howdoyousee? Imperialistaggression? Astrongernationsimplydoingwhathadtobedoneto takecareofitslongterminterestsandsecurity? Combinationofthetwo?
A colossal Theodore Roosevelt, in his Rough Riders outfit, digs his way through the Isthmus ofPanama as a representative of the Colombian government waves a flag to the left, anxious for a newtreaty with the United States This is after the Colombian government had broken off negotiations,hoping for a better deal with the U.S., in terms of both cash and length of lease, which angeredRoosevelt, who referred to the Colombians as “double-dealers.” It's no coincidence that the earthbeing flung aside is burying Bogota, the capital of Colombia. Clustered at Roosevelt's heels are theships of many nations, eager to take advantage of the convenience of the canal.
INTERNALCOLONIALISM
Somethingtothinkaboutvis-à-visthedesireforAmericancoloniesinthe1890sandearly1900s.TherearemanywhowouldarguethattheUnitedStatesalreadypossessedcolonies,withintheUnitedStates.In1957LeoMarquard publishedaworkonSouthAfricainwhichhearguedthatthe“homelands”thattheindigenousAfricanshadbeenforcedontofunctionedascolonieswithinthegreaternationofSouthAfrica.Aformaldefinitionofinternalcolonialismmightbereadas:“politicalandeconomicinequalitiesbetweenregionswithinanationstate.”Inotherwords,unevendevelopmentwithinacountry,betweenthevariousareasofthecountry.ThisconceptwasadoptedbythepioneeringChicanoscholarRodolfoAcunainhisgroundbreakingworkOccupiedAmerica (1972),inwhichhearguedthat“ChicanosareacolonizedpeoplewithintheUnitedStates.”Whatishistheevidencesupportinghisargumentfortheexistenceofinternalcolonialisminthelate19th century?
Tobeginwith,in1900NewMexico,Arizona,andOklahomawerestillterritories– reasonbeing,theyhadsuchlargepopulationsofIndians,Mexicanos,andmixedbloodsthattheywereconsideredtobe“undesirable”candidatesasnewstatetobeadmittedintotheUnion– bettertokeepthemsimplyasterritories,or“internalcolonies”toservetheeconomicneedsoftherestofthecountry.
• Atthistime,inthelate19th andearly20th centurytheautomobile,truck,tractor,refrigeratedrailroadcar,andradiowerebindingtheregionsofthecountrytogetherpoliticallyandeconomicallylikeneverbefore.
• TherailroadmadetherapiddeliveryofWesternresourcestoEasternurbancenterspossible–beefandtimber,andnewindustriesinoil,cotton,produce,fish,andcopperwerebooming.
• Thefederalgovernmentwasbuildinghugedamstobringwater(throughmassiveirrigationprojects)andpowertoareasthathadpreviouslygonewithouttheseamenities,orhadbeenlimitedinthem.
Butinspiteofthesepositivedevelopments,Acunaseesthemasnothingmorethanthenecessarystepstobringingcoloniesin stepwiththemetropolesoastomaximizeefficiencyandprofitability,becauseregardless,theSouthwestisstillaneconomiccolonyoftheEast,dueto:• Theabsenteeownershipofland– toomuchacreageisownedandcontrolledbylargelandownersandcorporationsfromtheEast• Verylittlemanufacturing– essentiallyallrealindustrialpoweranddecision-makingislocatedintheEast• ThecorporateandfederalpowersoftheEastcontrolledtaxes,interestrates,freightprices,andthepricesoffarmproducts• Further,thislackofdevelopmentlimitedtheabilityoftheregiontoemployagriculturalworkersintheoff-season
Sotherearetwoquestionstobeconsidered– WEREtheterritoriesoftheSouthwestinternalcoloniesoftheeasternUnitedStates,orwasitnothingmorethanbadluckthattheywererelativelyresource-poorregionsandgeographicallyundesirableforsettlement,andthusthelastareasofthecountrytobesettled?Afterall,TexasandCaliforniawerealsoterritoriestakenfromMexico,chockfullofMexicanos andIndians,buttheydidnotsufferthesamefate– movementsforstatehoodgeminatefromwithinterritories,andthesemovementsdidnotalwayshavetremendousmomentumwithintheseterritories.Let’squicklylookatNewMexico.Yes,therewasresistancewithinCongressinthelate19thcenturyduetotheadultpopulationofNewMexicobeinglargelyilliterate,Hispano,andCatholic(thecountrywaspredominantly Protestant,nottomentionCongress);butontheotherhand,NewMexico’scitizenscouldnotagreeuponaconstitution(ononeoccasiontheconstitutionfailedpassagebyonevote).TherewasalsoafailedattemptbetweenNewMexicoandArizonatouniteintoonestatetobecalled“Montezuma”whichwastedsomeyearsoftimeandeffort.Similarly,sincetheearly1800s,similarcriticisms,withoutthephrase“internalcolonialism”havingbeencoinedyet,wereleveledattheNorthrelativetothestatusoftheSouthpriorto,andevenaftertheCivilWar– theindustrializedNorthwasseenastreatingtheagrarianSouthasasortofagrarianfiefdom,largelypopulatedbypoor,illiteratewhitesand(largelyenslaved)blacks.Butallofthathasbeenleftbehind.Ithinkallofthiscomesdowntoamatterofinterpretation– therecanbenodefinitiveanswertothequestion.Andlet’snotevengetintotheoverlygeneralizedstatementthatAllChicanos(nationwide)area“colonizedpeople,”nomatterwheretheylive,whattheymightbedoingforaliving,howsuccessfultheymightbe- ?Seemsabitmuch.
Theotherquestionsis– wasthereanyrealresistanceonthepartofMexicanos tothiseconomiccontrol?Infact,therewas.Thereweredozensofstrikesfromthe1880sthroughthe1920sthatweremainly,orwholly,theworkofMexicano workers,yetyouhavesourceaftersourcereportingnothingofthesort.Forexample,the1907CaliforniaFruitGrower’sGuide:“Mexicansareplentiful,generally peaceable,andsatisfiedwithverylowsocialconditions.”And:“TheMexicanisaquiet,inoffensivenecessityinthatheperformsthebigmajorityofourroughworkinagriculture,building,andstreetlabor.TheyhavenoeffectontheAmericanstandardoflivingbecausetheyarenot muchmorethanagroupoffairlyintelligentcolliedogs.”
Howthentoreconciletheseseeminglycontradictorypiecesofinformation?Ontheonehand,thereareaccountsofstrikeafterstrikeonthepartofMexicano workersintheSouthwest,andontheother,theperiodicalsofthetimespaintaportraitofthedocileandeasilycontrolledMexicanlaborerwhodoesallofthehardworkcheerfullyandwithlittleornocomplaint.Theanswertothequestionissimpleboosterism.TheCaliforniaFruitGrower’sGuide,andothersourcesofinformationlikeit,wereanxioustogivethesensethatCaliforniaandtheotherSouthwesternterritoriesandstateswere“gardensofEden,”attractiveandprofitableplacestomove,startbusinesses,makeliving,raiseafamily,etc,andpresentingapictureofalowwageandeasilycontrolledlaborforcethatwasalwaysavailablewasabigpartof“boosting”theregioninquestioninanygivenarticleortext.
WORLDWARI,THEMEXICANREVOLUTION,IMMIGRATION,ANDCOMMUNISM– FUN,HUH?
TheviolenceoftheMexicanRevolutionledtoincreasedlevelsofMexicanimmigrationintotheUS,andconsequentlyintensifieddiscriminationagainstMexicansintheSouthwest,andallthisatatimewheneventsassociatedwithWorldWarIwerealsoalarmingAmericansabouttheirsharedborderwithMexico,aswellasconcernsovercommunistsubversion.ThefearofMexicanviolenceintheSouthwest– inNovemberof1913theLAPDassignedpoliceofficerstoinvestigateasubversiveplotofcommunistsandcholos (slangtermofthetimeforlowerclassMexican).TheLosAngelesTimesclaimedthatatleast10%ofthecity’s35,000Mexicanswereknownvillista rebels(thiswaslaterproventobebasedonnocrediblesourceofinformation).Thishysteriacoincidedwiththenextyear’soutbreakofwarinEuropeandbigbusiness’demandformoreMexicanlabor;whenmoreworkersarrived,thelargelyAnglopublicreactedwithanger.TheJusticeDept suspectedGermanagentsinthecityofrecruitingMexicansasspiesandsaboteurs,andoverthenextthreeyearsthepoliceignoredanysortofanti-Mexicanviolenceordiscrimination,onthepretextthatMexicanswerepro-Germanandsodeservedwhateverilltreatmenttheyreceived.
In1915thePlandeSanDiegowasdiscoveredonthepersonofBasilio Ramos,asupporterofGeneralVictoriano Huerta.ThePlan’soriginsremainunknowntothisday,butitcalledforageneraluprisingintheSouthwestonthepartofallminorities,andinvolved thekillingofallAnglomalesovertheageofsixteen,aswellasthecreationofaMexicano stateintheSouthwest…REALLY?HOW???Ifthissoundstotallyincredible,thatmaybebecausetherehasbeensomespeculationthatthiswasnothingmorethanaschemeofVenustiano Carranza’stodiscreditHuertaintheeyesoftheUnitedStatesgovernment.Atanyrate,thePlan’sdiscoveryfallsrightintothemidstofastateofgeneralanxietyintheSouthwest– muchviolencealongtheborder,andlaborunrestinthecoppermines.Overthecourseoftwelvemonthsfrom1915into1916therewereoverthirtyrevolutionary raidsfromMexicointotheUS,withappr.300Mexicansand21Angloskilled,andallofthisculminatinginPancho Villa’sraidonColumbus,NewMexicoinMarchof1916.ThefederalgovernmentbelievedallofthistobeinstigatedbyGermanprovocateurs,andbyearly1917 therewere35,000U.S.soldiersonthebordertomonitorthesituation.Andthat’swhentheZimmermannTelegramarrivesinthehandsofPresidentWoodrowWilson.
TheZimmermannTelegramwas,inbrief,aproposalfromtheGermantotheMexicangovernmentthatiftheUnitedStatesjoinedthewarinEuropeagainstGermany,thenMexicowouldallywithGermanyanddeclarewarontheU.S.Germanypromisedthatonceshehadwonthewar,shewouldhelpMexicomediateapeacethatwouldgiveMexicobackTexas,Arizona,andNewMexico,becauseofcoursetherewasneveranyhopethatMexicocoulddefeattheUnitedStates,butonlythathavingtodealwithaMexicanattackintheSouthwestwouldproveproblematicenoughfortheU.S.thatitwouldallowGermanythetimeandspaceitneededtowinthewaragainstEnglandandFrance.ThetelegramwasinterceptedbyBritishintelligenceandacopydeliveredtoPresidentWilson,andwhenthepublicgotwordofit,itnotonlyprovedtobethenecessarycatalysttowhiptheAmericanpeopleintoawarfrenzytogooutandbeattheGermans,italsorousedafiercelyanti-MexicansentimentintheSouthwestoverthemerenotionthatMexicomighthaveevencontemplatedinvadingtheU.S.inthehopesofregainingpartoftheSouthwest.Theendresultofthis,asidefromincreasedbadvibestowardsMexicansonthepartofAmericansingeneral,wasthattheUnitedStatesgovernmentfinallyextendedrecognitiontothetherevolutionarygovernmentwhichithadbeenreluctanttodo;butthishadtobedoneinordertoarrangeaformalagreementofneutralitybetweenthetwogovernmentsforthedurationofthewar,nowthattheUnitedStateshaddeclaredagainstGermanyandherallies. TheZimmermannTelegram
AmericanentryintothewarstimulatedindustryandagriculturesomuchintheSouthwestthatdemandforworkersincreased,evenasmanyAmericanslefttheworkforceandbecamesoldiers.TheUnitedStatesenactedadraftlaw,scaringmanyMexicansintoreturningtoMexico;atthesametime,bymid-1917theRevolutionhadsubsided,andMexicowasenticingmanyworkershometoabetterenvironment.TheU.S.governmentsoughtthecooperationoftheCatholicChurchtogetthemtoconvinceMexicansthattheyshouldstayandworkastheywouldnotbedrafted.MexicanswerealsotobeexemptedfromtheprovisionsoftheImmigrationActof1917duetotheneedfortheirlaborintheSouthwest.The1917ImmigrationActincreasedtheentryheadtaxintotheUnitedStatesto$8;inaddition,thosenowexcludedfromenteringtheUnitedStatesincluded:
"…allidiots,imbeciles,feeble-mindedpersons,epileptics,insanepersons;personswhohavehadoneormoreattacksofinsanity atanytimepreviously;personsofconstitutionalpsychopathicinferiority;personswithchronicalcoholism;paupers;professionalbeggars;vagrants; personsafflictedwithtuberculosisinanyformorwithaloathsomeordangerouscontagiousdisease;personsnotcomprehendedwithinanyoftheforegoingexcludedclasseswhoarefoundtobeandarecertifiedbytheexaminingsurgeonasbeingmentallyorphysicallydefective,suchphysicaldefectbeingofanaturewhichmayaffecttheabilityofsuchalientoearnaliving;personswhohavebeenconvictedoforadmithavingcommittedafelonyorothercrimeormisdemeanorinvolvingmoralturpitude;polygamists,orpersonswhopracticepolygamyorbelieveinoradvocatethepracticeofpolygamy;anarchists,orpersonswhobelieveinoradvocatetheoverthrowbyforceorviolenceoftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStates".
Themostcontroversialaspectoftheactwastheproposaltoexcludeall"aliensoversixteenyearsofage,physicallycapableofreading,whocannotreadtheEnglishlanguage,orsomeotherlanguageordialect,includingHebreworYiddish."Thislawwouldbefollowedbyanotherimmigrationlawin1924,theNationalOriginsAct,whichplaceda2%quotaonallethnicandracialimmigrantgroupsfromthatyearuntil1965.Thequotawasbasedonthepopulationnumbersofagivengroupbasedontheinformationprovidedbythe1890census,asopposedtothatof1920,becauseatitsbasethispieceoflegislationhadseveralspecificobjectives:
• “Whiten”upthepopulationbyallowingentrytolargernumbersofnorthwesternEuropeans,andlimitingmorestrictlytheentryofsouthwesternandeasternEuropeans,less“desirablegroups”
• LimitthenumbersofCatholics,Jews,Muslims,andothernon-Protestantreligiousgroupsenteringthecountry• LimitthenumberofimmigrantsenteringthecountryfromRussia,andcountriescloseonherborders,duetotherecentcommunist
revolutioninRussiaandtherebirthofthatcountryastheSovietUnion,anationwhichhadvowedin1923toover- throwtheUnitedStatesandeveryothergovernmentintheworldbywayofcommunistrevolution
Afterthewar,thereisREALfearofcommunistsubversionintheUnitedStates.In1919alone- over3300laborstrikes,involving4millionworkers.RadicalsmailedbombstoprominentAmericans– andallofthisisseenasacommunistconspiracy.TheBureauofInvestigationwascreatedbyAttorneyGeneralA.MitchellPalmer,andgiventotheguidanceofJ.EdgarHoover,whoengineeredthenotoriousPalmerRaids.In33citieshomesarebrokenintowithoutwarrants,over4,000peoplearearrestedandheldwithoutcounsel,andultimately600individualsaredeported,manyofthemAmericancitizens– andmosthadcommittednocrimewhatsoever.Andjustremember…Mexicansarefromthatrevolutionarycountrysouthoftheborder,wheretheyareenacting“communistic”policiesastheyre-imaginetheircountryintoa– hopefully-- betterfuture,andinTHIScountryalotofMexicansarestrikingintheSouthwest,andtheyjustseemtokeepcomingandcomingandcoming…
WomenworkersinthedefenseindustryinsupportoftheWorldWarIwareffort,1919
Hereandfollowingyouhaveexamplesof
posterscelebratingthecontributionsmadeby womenworkers
to AmericansuccessinWorldWarI
WomenandtheRighttoVote
SuffragettedemonstratorairingoneofthemostcommoncriticismsofPresidentWilsonbysupportersofthewoman'srighttovoteaftertheAmericanentryintoWorldWarI:hewashugelyenthusiasticofself-determination(self-government)fortheGermans,sowhynotthenforAmericans,ormoretothepoint,Americanwomen?