C h a p t e r 4 - T h e A m e r i c a n S o u t h w e s t , 1 8 4 8 - 1 9 0 0

THEGOLDRUSH

ArepresentativegroupofminersfromthegoldfieldsofnorthernCaliforniainthelate1840sor1850s.Whiletherearemanyphotographsofthedigsandthemendoingthedigging,nonearemuchmorerevealingthanthis,incontentnorinclarity,asphotographywascomingintobeingatnearlythesametimeastheGoldRushitself.

AnimageofslightlymoreinterestasitshowswhitesandChineseworkingalongsideoneanother,notthemostcommonthingatanypointinthegoldfields,evenintheearliestgoingpriortothepassageoftheForeignMiner’sLicenseTax.Additionally,photographsofChineseminersarefewandfarbetween,especiallyinashotascandidandposedasthisone.

Equallyrare,infactrarer,atleastasfarasmyresearchhasgoneuptothistime,aretheimagestobefoundofMexicanminers.IwishIcouldenlargetheimagefurthersothatyoucouldgetabettersenseofthelivesofthesemenintermsofthemapsoftheirfaces,butanylargerthanthisandtheimagebeginstoloseallclarity.

Onaninterestingsidenote,becauseminingwassuchdifficultwork,andtooksuchatremendoustollonman’spants,twoenterprisingfellows,JacobDavisandLeviStrauss,cameupwiththeideaofironrivet-reinforcedbluejeanstowithstandtheheavywear-and-tearofminingwork(theofficialmottoofLevi’sformanyyearswas“ForMenWhoToil”).AnAmericanoriginal!

SanFranciscoBay,in1845,justafewyearsbeforethediscoveryofgoldatSutter’sMillin(soontobeknownas)ElDoradoCounty,just130milesaway.

SanFranciscoBayin1849,theyearafterthediscoveryofgold,whenthepopulationofthecityhadballoonedfrom25,000to100,000.Intheforegroundaretemporarycampsofmen(andsomefewwomen,themajorityprostitutes),whoaremakingtheirwaytothegoldfields.

AttheleftwecanseethecelebratoryatmospherethatprevailedovertheannouncementoftheimminentpassageoftheChineseExclusionAct,whichcutofffurtherChineseimmigrationtotheUnitedStatesin1882,alongsideapoliticalcartoonextollingtheexcellenceoftheForeignMiner’sLicenseTaxof1850.Thistiesintothegeneralthrustofthe“anti-anyonenotwhite”attitudethatprevailedintheWestaftertheMexicanAmericanWar,equallyappliedingeneraltoIndians,Mexicans,Chinese,andBlacks.

The(almostcertainlyimaginary)banditJoaquinMurietta above,andtotheright,themanhimself,Tiburcio Vasquez

SOCIALBAN

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Atthetimeofhisdeath,supposedly,theheadofMurietta andthehandofThreeFingeredJack,hisloyalright-handman(nopunintended)werecutoffandpreservedinajarofformaldehyde.Theserelicstouredthestatefordecadesincarnivalsideshows;peoplepaidmoneytoseethem,andtheyhauntedthedreamsofimpressionablechildren(andsomeadults,nodoubt),indarkandunmentionableways.

Nooneknowswhatultimatelyhappenedtothem,orwhotheyreallybelongedto;therelicsvanishedinthemistsoftimeandmemory,alongsomedustyroadsideinCalifornia’scomplicatedhistoricalmemory.ButifMurietta neverreallyexistedatall– wellthen,someoneELSE’Sheadgotputinthatjar,andthathandbelongedtoJackorsomeotherpoorsoul,evilorotherwise.Makesyouthinkaboutjustice,vigilanteorotherwise,andthelengthspeoplewillgotoinordertomakeabuck,thenandnow,hmm?

AMexicanImmigrant’sActofHonorJeffBiggers,NYTimes,2/14/12

WhileArizona’ssinglebriefCivilWarskirmishatPicacho PeakbetweentheTexas-ledConfederatesandUnionsoldiersfromCalifornia,onApril15,1862,isannuallytakenoutofmothballsforcelebration,perhapsthestate’smostenduringstoryofhonorduringthewarremainsoneMexicanimmigrant’scourageousactinthefaceoftheConfederateoccupationofTucson.OnValentine’sDayin1862,JeffersonDavissignedtheterritoryofArizona— intruth,southernArizona,belowthe34thparallel— intotherebelstatesastheirwesternmostcapital.IttooktheCivilWartobringsuchlong-soughtterritorialrecognition,whichcamewithcompetingclaimsanddeclarations.AstheUnitedStatesCongressdallied,ConfederatesympathizershadfirstgatheredinMesilla,N.M.,onMarch16,1861,andhastilyclaimedthatthegreaterArizonaterritorywouldnot“recognizethepresentBlackRepublicanadministration.”AsubsequentconventioninTucsonelectedadelegatetotheConfederateCongress.WhentheConfederateflagrosefromthemesquitepolesinTucson’sdepopulatedmainplaza,theJohnnyRebs werejoinedbyMarkAldrich,amerchantfromwesternIllinoiswhohadbeenindictedforbutnotconvictedofthemurderoftheMormonfounderJosephSmith,andhadalsoservedasmayor.Theremainingcitizensandmerchantsintheoccupiedtown,liketheminingpioneerSylvesterMowry,sidedwiththeConfederateforces.ARepublicanfromRhodeIsland,Mowrytookadvantageofhisentrepreneurialspirittoprovideleadfromhisminesfortheirammunition.OneMexicanimmigrantstoodhisgroundfortheUnion.EstevanOchoa,impeccablydressed,strolledthestreetsofTucsonlikeabenevolentdonoverTucson’sterritorialversionofTammanyHall.OneoftheSouthwest’smostenterprisingbusinessmeninthepre- andpost-CivilWarera,hehadamassedasmallfortunefromhisshippingbusinessandpioneeringventuresincotton,livestockandmining.

EstevanOchoa,1880s

OchoahadservedonaspecialcommitteewithMowryasadelegateataconventionin1859inLasCruces,N.M.,callingfortheorganizationofArizonaasaseparateterritory.Havingimmigratedonlytwoyearsbefore,hewasat28alreadyaleaderintheemergingterritory.HehadbeenpraisedbyTheWeeklyArizonannewspaperforhis“beautifulandhappystylepeculiartohimselfrequestingeverymemberofthemeetingtolabordiligentlyandenergeticallyinthegoodcauseinwhichtheyhadembarked.”Contemporaries,journalistsandhistoriansalike,infact,alwaysprofferedthehonorifictitleof“DonEstevan,”perhapstojustifyOchoa’sinfluentialroleinanincreasinglyAnglo-dominatedgentry.Ochoa— whowasbornin1831inChihuahua,Mexico,andwhosefamilyheldhugelandgrantsandtracedtheircoatofarmstothehistoric16th-centuryCortesexpeditionfromSpain— couldhavemadeatidylittlewar-timefortunemeetingConfederatedemandsasaconduitofwagonsupplytrains.WiththeTexanConfederatesoccupyinghistown,Ochoahadtomakeachoice.ThehistorianFrankUnderwoodnarratesthedramaticmomentfromtheperspectiveoftherebelcaptain:Mr.Ochoa,yourealize,ofcourse,thattheUnitedStatesnolongerexists.Itrust,therefore,thatyouwillyieldtotheneworder,andtaketheoathofallegiancetotheConfederacyandtherebyrelievethenecessityofconfiscatingyourpropertyinthenameofthenewgovernmentandofexpellingyoufromthecity.PolitelyandunflinchinglyDonEstevanreplied:CaptainHunter,itisoutofthequestionformetoswearallegiancetoanypartyorpowerhostiletotheUnitedStatesgovernment;fortothatgovernmentIowemyprosperityandhappiness.When,Sir,doyouwishmetoleave?Ochoa,whowasallowedtotakehisfavoritehorse,20roundsofammunitionandsomerations,setoffacrossApachecountryalone.Intruth,athirdarmyheldmoreswayinArizonathantherag-tagremnantsofanyUniontroopsortheoccupyingforceoftheConfederates:theApaches.Theirthreatworriedtheself-appointedgovernoroftheConfederateTerritoryofArizona,TexasLieutenantColonelJohnBaylor,asheraisedhisarmyacrosstheSouthwest.Inthespringof1862,BaylortookthebarbarismofslaveryonestepfurtherfortheAmericanIndians,writingtohiscommanderinTucson:“TheCongressoftheConfederateStateshaspassedalawdeclaringtheexterminationofallhostileIndians.UseallmeanstopersuadetheApachesofanytribetocomeinforthepurposeofmakingpeace,andwhenyougetthemalltogether,killallthegrownIndiansandtakethechildrenprisonersandsellthemtodefraytheexpenseofkillingIndians.”(ThatdeclarationcostBaylorhisgovernorship,thoughhemanagedtoremainintheConfederateCongress.)TheConfederatesstayedaroundlessthanmodern-daysnow-birdtourists.Bythesummerof1862,UnionforcesfromCaliforniasent themfleeingfromTucson.Mowrywasarrestedasa“Confederatesympathizer,spyandtraitor”andimprisonedbrieflyinYuma.OneConfederatedeserter,JackSwilling,wouldeventuallymigratenorthandfoundthecityofPhoenix.SomeclaimedOchoaheroicallyforetoldthestate’sdestinyonhisdeparture— “Iwillyetlivetoseeyoudriveoutofhereina worseconditionthanyouarenowsendingme”— andindeed,hereturnedtotheOldPuebloandre-establishedhisvariousbusinesses.

PresidentAbrahamLincolnfinallysignedArizonaintoexistenceasitsownterritoryonFeb.24,1863.Adornedwithbamboobirdcagesandmeanderingpheasantsandpeacocks,Ochoa’shaciendainTucsonaftertheCivilWarbecamethewateringholeforthetown’smostprominentfamiliesandvisitorsandenlightenedschemes.Mild-mannered,famouslycourteousandgenerous,helikedtorollhisowntobaccocigarettesincornhusks.Whenhemarriedlater inlife,hereportedlyshoweredhisyoungbridewiththebestlinens,silksandelegantclothesimportedfromMexico’smoreurbanetradingcenters.In1875,whileservingasTucson’smayor— thefirstandonlyMexican-Americantodoso— andpresidentoftheschoolboard,heupstagedarecalcitrantterritoriallegislatureandadomineeringCatholicbishopbysingle-handedlyraisingthefunds,anddonatingtheland,tobuildthetown’smainpublicschool.(Threeyearsearlier,aschairmanoftheterritory’sCommitteeonPublicEducation,Ochoahadfoundedthe firstenduringpubliceducationsysteminTucsonafterearliereffortshadfailed.)Inthespringof1876,theArizonaCitizendeclared:“Ochoaisconstantlydoinggoodforthepublic,”andconcluded,“Ochoaisthetrueandusefulfriendoftheworthypoor,oftheoppressed,andofgoodgovernment.”Withtheschoolcompletedin1877,Ochoaliterallyplacingonthe last“shinglestobuildaramada onthefrontside”oftheschoolhouse,thesamenewspaperraved:“ThezealandenergyMr.Ochoahasgiventopubliceducation,shouldgivehimahighplaceontherollofhonorandendearhimmorecloselythanevertohiscountrymen.Hehasdonemuchtoassistinpreparingtheyouthforthebattleoflife.”ThemilitarychroniclerJohnBourke,whoservedontheApachewarcampaignswithGeneralGeorgeCrook,describedOchoaas“oneofthecoolestandbravestmeninallthesouthwesterncountry.”Bourkequotesafellowpioneer’stribute:“Hewasatypicalfrontiersman,bold, aggressive,andfertileinresource,laughingdangertoscorn,rarelydauntedbyanyobstacle,andinbrief,possessingjustthosequalitieswhichareessentialinthefoundationofanewstate.”ButitwasOchoa’sdefenseoftheUnionthatremainedhisgreatestlegacyinTucson.Fivedecadeslater,withtheterritoryonthecuspofstatehood,theArizonaDailyStarremindeditsreadersthattheMexican-AmericanpioneerwasuniqueinhisUnionstance.

Sources:“TheCreationoftheTerritoryofArizona,”B.Sacks,ArizonaandtheWest,Summer1963;TucsonCitizen,April2,1872; TucsonCitizen,May22,1875;TucsonCitizen,October27,1877;“LosTucsonenses:TheMexicanCommunityinTucson,1854-1941,”ThomasSheridan(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress1986);“PreservetheOldLandmarks,”ArizonaDailyStar,Dec.29,1910;“PioneerPortraits,”FrankC.Lockwood(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,1968);“TheWaroftheRebellion:ACompilationoftheOfficialRecordsoftheUnionandConfederateArmies,”Washington:GPO,1897.

MarianoG.Samaniego CarlosI.Velasco

Afteracareerbuiltnotonlyonthefinancialsuccessesmentionedinthebook,butalsoonahard-wonreputationasanIndianfighter(asidefromhavingbeeninvolvedinmanybattleswiththeApache,in1886heledthepossethatsuccessfullyrescuedanApache- kidnappednine-yearoldboyinthemountainsoutsideofTucson),MarianoSamaniego turnedhisattentiontocivicenterprises,sponsoringtheannualcelebrationofMexicanindependenceday,andhelpingVelascotoestablishtheAlianza Hispano-Americana– indeed,heservedastheorganization’ssecondpresidentandfirsttreasurer.

Samaniego freightingtrain,1860s

Atleft,Velascoandfamily,circa1880s

TheLincoln-CountyWar,NewMexico,1876-78

Inthe1870s,demandforbeefandmuttonroseasrefrigeratedrailroadcarsandshipsbegantodelivermeattotheeasternU.S.andeventoEurope.ManyprofiteersmovedintotheplainsofLincolnCounty,clashingwithNewMexicansheepherdersforgrazingrightsontheopenrange.

Theconflict’struesourcewasbetweentwoAnglos,store-ownerLawrenceMurphyandherdsmanJohnChisum,andwhichofthemwouldsupplythemilitarypostsandIndianreservationswithmeat,primarilybeef.Bothsidesbroughtingangstoenforcetheirwill,mainlycomposedofrecentlyarrivedmigrantsfromTexas,steepedinatraditionofviolencefromtheCivilWar,bloodfeuds,andageneralhatredofMexicans.Thisintroducedastrongelementoflawlessnessintotheregion,andwhilerelationsbetweencattle-owningAnglosandsheep-owningMexicanswerebadeverywhereatthistime,nowhereweretheyasbadasinNewMexico.

WhiletheviolencethatacceleratedwasreportedbythepapersasbeingbetweenTexansandMexicans,itwasnottrulyracethatwasattherootofthetrouble,buteconomics;thetruthofthematterwasdistortedastheSantaFeRingdictatedthenewsbiastodistractfromtherealconflict.Therealwarhaditsoriginsinthefollowingevent:JohnRiley,arancherassociatedwithLawrenceMurphyaccusedtwoMexicanworkersofstealing;theydeniedtheallegationsandfled.Afterbeingcaught,theyweretobedeliveredtojusticeatFortStanton,seven milesaway;however,theyallegedlytriedtoescapeandwerekilleden routetothefort.Thementransportingthemwerearrested,andthenacquitted– somewhatironically,thejudgeinchargeofthematterwasamemberofthegroupofmeninthepayofandundertheinfluence ofJohnMurphy,knownastheMurphyRing.

AtthistimeJuanPatronsteppedforward,agraduateofNotreDame,whowasspeakerintheterritorialHouseofRepresentatives, workedwithoutpayasthetownschoolteacher,andasclerkoftheprobatecourt.Patroninvestigated,foundtheMexicanshadbeenkilledonthe

LawrenceMurpy,right

JohnChisum

ranch,andnotafterhavingtriedtoescapeen routetoFortStanton,andcalledforagrandjury,arequestdeniedbythesamejudgethathadacquittedthosemenaccusedofkillingthetwoMexicans.Asprobateclerk,Patronsignedawarrant(illegally)forthearrestofthesemen,gotapossetogether,andtookthemenprisoner.AninterrogationrevealedthattheMexicanshadbeenshotincoldblood,andwhennewsofthisgotout,theMexicanpopulationformedamob,andJuanPatronwasnarrowlyabletopreventtheaccusedfrombeinglynched.TroopsfromFortStanton(calledbyafriendoftherancherJohnRiley)arrived,andthemenwerereleased– RileygotagunfromhishouseandshotPatronintheback,butPatronsurvivedtoleadtheMexicansduringtheensuingLincolnCountyWar,andalthoughindictedforhavingsignedoutthefalsewarrant,neverwenttotrial.

JuanPatron

JohnTunstall

William“BillytheKid”Bonney

TheviolenceescalatedwhenJohnTunstall,anassociateofChisum’s,openedageneralstoreandabankthatcompetedwiththeinterestsoftheMurphyRing.Tunstallwasthreatened,butorganizedabandofarmedmen,theRegulators,andwasbackedupbyPatron,asmostMexicanssidedwiththeTunstall/Chisum factionagainstMurphy.ThethreatagainstTunstallwascarriedout– hewasmurdered-- bytheJesseEvansGang,anAngloandMexicanbunchwhowerecasualmurderersofmembersoftheMexicancommunity.Evan’sfollowers– amongthemWilliamBonney,orBillytheKid-- roseupagainsttheenemy,andbothgroupsrecruitedTexansharpshooterstofillouttheirranks.InthewordsofaLincolnCountyresident:“DuringthelatterpartofSeptember,theymovedtothevicinityofLincolnandinauguratedaworsetypeofterrorismthanheretoforeknown…theykilledtwomenandtwoboysabout14yearsold,unarmedandtakinginhayinafield.”ThisrousedtheMexicansofLincolnCounty,whodeterminedtoattackthefirstAmericans,inparticularTejanos,thatcametheirway.

“TheRegulators”

TheGovernoroftheterritoryrefusedtointercede,butwasrunoutofofficeafteranationalandeveninternationaloutcrywasheardoverthekillingoffirst,aminister,andthenTunstall,aBritishnational.ThenewGovernorappointedPatrontoleadamilitia,andpeacewasrestoredastheassassinswereeitherkilled,arrested,orrunoutofLincolnCounty.ButtheMurphyandChisum Ringssurvived,andharassmentforcedPatrontomoveseveralhundredmilesawaytoPuertodeLunawhere,drinkinginabarwithafriend,hewasgunneddownbyMitchManey,apennilesscowboywhowasthendefendedbythelargestlawfirmintheterritory.Ahungjuryresulted,andManey wasneverretried.Wasthereaconspiracyatwork…?Gosh,Iwonder?!

Patronwasanhonestandeffectiveleaderandopponentofthecorruptsystemhewasapartof– hisbeingmurderedinsuchawayalmostguaranteedthatnooneofalikemindwouldrisetotakehisplace.

Duringthe1880stheconflictdegeneratedintoaracewarwithtimeonthesideoftheAnglos– bythemid-1880stherailroadhadmadesheep-raisingintoamajorindustry.AMexicanherdercouldbehadfor$200yearly,andhecouldmanageathousandewesworth$15,000– buttheseprofitswouldnotaccruetotheMexicanpopulationforlong,as,inevitably,thebetter-capitalizedandnumericallysuperiorAngloswouldtakeitover.

JuanJose,Pablo,andNicanor Herrera,associatedwith,andpossiblytheprimaryorganizersofLosGorras Blancas.Theorganizationiswell-rememberedinnorthernNewMexicotothisday,ascanbeseenbytheposterandlithographbelow,bothpiecesofartcreatedin2005.

LASGORRASBLANCAS

JUANCORTINA

ThestoryofJuanCortinaandhismanyadventuresisfartoolongandinvolvedtogointohere,andultimatelydoesnotyieldenoughofinterestforourpurposestotakethetimeandspacetodoso,butIthoughtitinterestingtomakenoteofthefactthatheinitiallyfoughtagainsttheUnitedStatesinthatheresistedthelawfulauthorityoftheStateofTexas(andI’mnotsayinghewasinthewrong),butlaterfoughtagainsttheConfederacyfortheUnionintheCivilWar,albeitbriefly.HefoughtforJuarezduringtheFrenchIntervention,andwasinvolvedintheBattleofPueblaonCincodeMayo…butlaterswitchedsidesandfoughtfortheFrench,beforeswitchingabckandbeingpresentattheexecutionofMaximilian.Furthermore,whenPorfirioDiazissuedthePlanofTuxtepec,Cortinastoodforhim,alienatingJuarezandangeringfuturepresidentSebastianLerdodeTejada.Later,whenDiazhadmadehimselfmasterofMexico,farfrombeinggratefulforCortina’searliersupport,hesawhimasapotentialsourceoftroubleinthefarnorthernreachesofthecountryandhadCortinaarrestedandbroughttoMexicoCitywhereheremainedinamilitaryprisonwithouttrialorsentencingforfourteenyearsafterwhich,in1890,hewasparoledtoahacienda,anoldman,anddiedfouryearslaterattheageofseventy.

GREGORIOCORTEZ

In1982amade-for-TVmoviewasproducedstarringayoungEdwardJamesOlmos,thebest-knownyoungChicanoactorinthecountryatthattimeandhotoffofthemodestsuccessofZootSuit theyearbefore.Themovieisterrific,andcriminallyunknowntoday,largelybecauseitisinexplicablyunavailableonDVD.Youcanfinditonbittorrent sites,anditdidcomeoutonVHSbackintheday– youcanalsoseeitonyoutube.Ithinkit’soneofthebestexamplesofChicanocinemafromthatera,andifIwereteachingacourseonthesubject,it’dcertainlybeinthecurriculum.Ihighlyrecommendit,especiallyifyoucanstreamyourcomputerthroughyourTVandwatchitthere– really,notbemissed!

MuralofGregorioCortez’ride,locationandartistunknown