HYPOTHESIS

shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.

Light, et al 1989 define the

hypothesis as a tentative

statement that predicts how two or

more variables relate to one

another.

Variable -is any factor that is

capable of change.

Hypothesis -is used to state a possible relationship between one fact and another. A fact is defined by McGuigan (1979) as

“an event of actual occurrence. It is something that we are quite sure has happened”….

FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

Concept of hypothesis: A hypothesis is a proposition-a tentative assumption

which a researcher wants to test for its logical orempirical consequences.

Hypothesis are generally concerned with the causesof a certain phenomenon or a relationship betweentwo or more variables under investigation.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING:-

1. formulate a hypothesis.

2. Set up a suitable significance level. (type-I &II error)

3. Choose a test criterion.

4. Compute the statistics.

5. Make decision.

TWO HYPOTHESES

alternative hypothesis -the

hypothesis that you support

your prediction.

null hypothesis - the

hypothesis that describes the

remaining possible

outcomes….

NULL HYPOTHESIS

In a study “Attitudes of Students of

Selected Colleges Toward Sexual

Behavior,”

The null hypothesis could be—

1. There are no significant differences

in the mean scores of male and female

students on attitudes towards the

sexual behavior;

2. There are no significant differences

in the students’ attitude scores when

they are grouped according to socio-

economic status.

GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS

is closely related to hypothesis

building and is an integral part of

the formulation of the problem.

The general purpose of

assumptions is to establish more

firmly the framework within which

an investigation will take place.

PURPOSES OF ASSUMPTIONS (MCASHAN,

1963)

1. To attempt to delimit the scope

of the problem

2. To seek to establish the proper

frame of reference

3. To set forth certain conditions

4. To aid in the development of

testable hypotheses

5. To help establish the population and

extent of future generalizations

6. In some instances, to determine the

statistical limits for the acceptance or

rejection of the hypotheses tested.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

The definition of terms is written for knowledgeable peers, not people from other disciplines As such, it is not the place to fill pages with definitions that knowledgeable peers would know at a glance. Instead, define terms that may have more than one meaning among knowledgeable peers.

Different research workers use

common terms in different ways,

hence to make certain that there

are no misunderstandings about

what is reported, it is necessary

that technical terms and words or

phrases with special meanings

should be defined…

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Survey of related literature.

The researcher should give a brief

summary of the related studies

which have already done, and

he/she must show their

relationship to the proposed

research problem…

RESEARCH DESIGN

refers to the entire process of

planning and carrying out a

research study.

( Manheim and Simon, 1977)

defined as “a detailed plan of how

the research will be conducted.”

RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is the arrangement of

condition for collection and analysis of data in a

manner that aims to combine relevance to the

research purpose with economy in procedure.

Research design is in fact the conceptual

structure within the research is conducted.

Research design as a “Blue print for the

collection, measurement and analysis of data”

PURPOSES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. To provide answers to

research questions

2. To control variance

CHARACTERISTICS FOR GOOD RESEARCH

DESIGN

1. Freedom from bias

2. Freedom from confusing

3. Control of extraneous

variables

4. Statistical correctness for

testing hypothesis

YOUNG (1966)

Says that the working out of the plan consists of

making certain decisions with respect to the

following:

1. What the study is about

2. Why the study is made

3. Where the needed data can be

found

4. Where or in what areas the

study will be carried out

5. When or what periods of time the

study will cover

6. How many cases will be needed

7. What bases of selection will be used

8. What techniques of gathering data

will be adopted

Authorities on research

emphasize that in planning the

design…

-the problem has been

identified

-the general objective is set

down

-and the specific objectives

are then formulated

SOURCES OF DATA

. The report should also include information about the sources of evidence. Among the questions that should be answered are the following:

Who were the subjects?

How many were they?

How were they selected?

How was the problem of missing data handled?

THE FOUR TERMS

Subjects

Respondents

Informants and

Participants

SUBJECTS

- individuals that

denotes passive

roles.

RESPONDENTS

-individuals

respond to very

specific questions.

INFORMANTS

-a term that reflects

the active role of

informing the

investigator as to

context and its cultural

rules

PARTICIPANTS

- refer to those individuals who enter a “collaborative” relationship with the investigator and contribute to decision-making regarding the research process as well as inform the investigator about themselves

PROCEDURE

The procedures to

follow in conducting

the study should

likewise be explained

in complete detail.

DATA-GATHERING INSTRUMENTS

. Intruments include tests,

questionaires, interviews,

scales, etc. should be

described in detail. The

description should include the

construction, tryout, and final

adoption of the instruments

used.

TREATMENT OF DATA

This section should include a

detailed description of how one

proposes to arrange or

interpret the data gathered so

that conclusions may be drawn

from them.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Investigator must make

use of primary and not

secondary sources of

information

1.The primary source

generally includes a wealth of

information.

2.There are more chances of

errors in the data found in a

secondary source since they

were only copied from a

primary sources.

There is a possibility that

the secondary source

incomplete or is quoted out

of context.

DOCUMENTARY SOURCES

Documentary sources of information are those which are contained in published and unpublished documents, reports, statistics, manuscripts, letters, diaries and so on.

THERE ARE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

SOURCES.

Primary sources are those which

provide first-hand data.

Secondary sources are those which

provide data that have been

transcribed or compiled from original

sources and of which the promulgating

authority is different from that which

controlled the collection of data first

hand.

THE LIBRARY AS A SOURCE OF INFORMATION

Card Catalog. This is the index to

the library. It is an invaluable aid to

researchers since it contains a list of

all the books in the library.

Call Number. It is a combination of

letters and numerals used to arrange

books of the same classification

number in alphabetical order (Akers,

1995)

Periodical Indexes. Periodicals

are published materials issued on

a regular basis. The function of an

index to periodical literature is to

point out the location of the topics

discussed in the periodicals

covered by the index.

Footnotes and reference citations.

Footnotes are of two kinds: reference

or content notes. Reference

footnotes are used to cite the

authority for statements in the text,

such as specific facts or opinions as

well as quotations. Content footnotes

are used to make incidental

comments to amplify or to qualify

textual discussion.

Development of a bibliography.

Included in any thesis proposal is a list

of published materials to be used in

the course of investigation. A

bibliography may be defined as “the

works or a list of the works referred to

in a text or consulted by

its author as sources of information”.

Book:Crawl, Thomas K. Fundamentals of Educational

Research. New York: Brown and Benchmark Publishers,

1993.

Journal:Alunan, Rafael M. III “Responding to the Challenge

of the 90s,” The PNP Journal. January-February 1993.

Magazine:Vera, Patricia. “Your Attitudes and You,” Blue

Collar, (December 1995), 4-5.

Newspaper:Castro, Eddee R. H., “Tax Exemption for Non-profit

Schools,” Manila Bulletin, April 1, 1996, p.7.

NOTE-TAKING PROCEDURES

The notes could be placed on card or sheets of

paper of uniform size and shape or in a big

notebook.

The actual words of an author must be placed in

the quotation marks, whether the notes are

statements of fact or merely opinions.

Extensive quotations should be summarized if

possible but the source still has to be identified.

Care has to be taken that the notes- whether direct

quotaions or summaries- do not distort the meaning

when they are taken out of the original context.

QUOTATIONS

In taking notes, the students

should be as brief as possible but

should not omit anything that

he/she feels will be used later in

the preparation of research report

or thesis.

Indirect quotation- paraphrasing

and the borrowing of ideas

RESEARCH AND THESIS WRITING:

OUTLINE OF DISCUSSION

The Research Topic- Rationale for the Choice

What considerations motivate the writer towards

the choice of a research topic?

Review of Background Material- Related Studies

and Literature

What related material does the writer find useful for

background purposes and how will these compare with

his/her own study?

The Methodology

What approach, method, and procedure should be

decided upon and why?

The Data or Object of Study- Analysis and

Interpretation

What are the areas into which the analysis of a

research problem are to be divided and what would

be the findings in each area.

Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations

What conclusions based on the findings for

each sub-division of the problem may be drawn and

what recommendations for the field are deemed

worthwhile based on the implications?

PROPOSALS AND FINAL REPORTS:

DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES

Proposals. It is necessary that he first write a

research proposal which describes the research

question which the researcher intends to

investigate and how he plans to carry out his/her

study

Final Report. The final report may take a

variety of forms. The final report of a project funded

by an educational agency may be written document

that the researcher sends to the funding agency