Democracy: American and French Revolutions

Theme: The effect of Enlightenment ideas on government and society

Enlightenment (Where we left off on Lesson 4)

Abbé Delille recites a poem in the salon of

Madame Geoffrin, site of many gatherings of the

Enlightenment philosophes

Impact of the Scientific Revolution

Suggested that rational analysis of behavior and institutions could have meaning in the human as well as the natural world

Increasingly, thinkers challenged recognized authorities such as Aristotelian philosophy and Christian religion and sought to explain the world in purely rational terms

The result was a movement known as the “Enlightenment”

John Locke (1632-1704) Studied the relationship

between the individual and the state

Largely anti-authoritarian Opposition is both on

the level of the individual person and on the level of institutions such as government and church

John Locke Individuals should use reason to search after truth

rather than simply accepting the opinion of authorities or being subject to superstition

There must be a distinction between the legitimate and illegitimate functions of institutions Based on those distinctions, there is a

corresponding distinction for the uses of force by those institutions.

By using reason to try to grasp the truth and by determining the legitimate functions of institutions, the individual and society will flourish materially and spiritually

John Locke Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) had described a

social contract in which people in a state of nature ceded their individual rights to a strong sovereign in return for his protection

Locke offered a new social contract theory in which people contracted with one another for a particular kind of government, and that they could modify or even abolish the government Great influence on Thomas Jefferson and the Declaration of

Independence

Voltaire Wrote Candide in 1759 in

which he analyzes the problem of evil in the world and depicts the woes heaped upon the world in the name of religion

His battle cry against the Roman Catholic Church was ecrasez l’infame (“crush the damned thing”)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Many Enlightenment thinkers condemned the legal and social privileges enjoyed by aristocrats and called for a society in which all individuals were equal before the law

In 1762, Rousseau wrote The Social Contract arguing that members of a society were collectively the sovereign All individuals would

participate directly in the formulation of policy and the creation of laws

American Revolution: New Legislation

In the mid-18th Century, British colonists in North America seemed content with British rule, but in the mid-1760s things started to change

Trying to recover financial losses from the French and Indian War (1754-1763) and the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), the British passed a series of new taxes on the colonies Sugar Act (1764) Stamp Act (1765) Townsend Act (1767) Tea Act (1773)

Other offensive legislation included the Quartering Act of 1765

American Revolution: Colonial Response

The colonists responded with demands of “no taxation without representation,” boycotted British products, attacked British officials, and staged the Boston Tea Party (1773)

In 1774, they organized the Continental Congress which coordinated the colonies’ resistance to British policies

American Revolution: Declaration of Independence

On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress adopted “The Unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America” (The Declaration of Independence)

American Revolution: Declaration of Independence

“all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness”

Governments derive their power and authority from “the consent of the governed”

When any government infringes upon individual’s rights, “it is the Right of the People to alter or abolish it, and to institute new Government”

Declared the colonies to be “Free and Independent States”

Revolutionary War Declaring yourself to be

“Free and Independent States” and making it so were two different things

On April 18, 1775, British troops and colonial militia skirmished at Lexington and the American Revolutionary War had begun

By the rude bridge that arched the flood,

Their flag to April's breeze unfurled,

Here once the embattled farmers stood,

And fired the shot heard round the world.

--Ralph Waldo Emerson

Colonial Troops: Aug 1776 28,000 soldiers

Average soldier was 20 years old with less than a year of service

Muskets, bayonets, light field guns

Two or three ranks of infantry supported by light field guns

Used simplified British tactics (experience from Seven Years’ War)

No Navy

Great disparity in quality between militia and Continental Army

Many generals were imposed upon General George Washington by Congress or state governments

British Troops: Aug 1776 24,000 soldiers

Average soldier was 30 years old with 10 years service

Muskets, bayonets, light field guns

Two or three ranks of infantry supported by light field guns

Powerful Navy (30 warships, 400 transports)

More experienced, better led, more thoroughly disciplined and trained

General William Howe knew generals from their Seven Years’ War record

The Difference What gave the colonists hope was

the opportunity to be gained by courage, cause, the home court advantage, and patriotism

Unlike earlier European dynastic squabbles, the American Revolution was an ideological war that affected the population

“Remember, officers and soldiers, that you are freemen, fighting for the blessings of liberty; that slavery will be your portion and that of your posterity if you do not acquit yourselves like men.” George Washington

Trenton The British defeated the colonists at Long Island in

Aug 1776 and followed up their success with a series of landings on Manhattan Island Compelled Washington to retreat, escaping finally

over the Delaware River into Pennsylvania with about 3,000 men.

Howe then went into winter quarters.

Trenton In December 1776, Washington

determined to make a surprise attack on the British garrison in Trenton, a 1,400-man Hessian force

Took advantage of British being in winter quarters and in poorly defended, dispersed locations

Bad weather and limited visibility Christmas had reduced British security

Hoped that a striking victory would lift the badly flagging American morale.

Reinforcements had raised Washington’s army to about 7,000

Continental Soldier by Don Troiani

Trenton

On Christmas night (December 25-26) Washington ferried about 2,400 men of across the ice-choked Delaware River at McConkey’s Ferry above Trenton and then proceeded by two columns on different routes, converging at opposite ends of the main street in Trenton

Trenton At 8:00 a.m. the colonists

converged on Trenton in two columns, achieving complete surprise. After only an hour and a half of fighting, the Hessians surrendered. Some 400 of the garrison

escaped southward to Bordentown, N. J., when two other American columns failed to get across the Delaware in time to intercept them.

About 30 were killed and 918 captured. American losses were only 4 dead and about the same number wounded.

Cowpens Nathanael Greene was

commander in the Carolinas and Georgia Only a little over 1,000

Continentals and bands of ill-disciplined militia against Cornwallis’ 10,000 men

Had to create circumstances to achieve success

Cowpens Greene divided his army into two

divisions which he posted to the northwest and northeast of Cornwallis’ camp at Winnsboro Allowed him to better feed his own

men, sustain the militia, and harass the British

Tempted Cornwallis to divide his main body, making it more vulnerable

Cornwallis did this in Jan 1781, sending 1,100 men (commanded by Tarleton) to attack Greene’s western division (commanded by Daniel Morgan)

Cowpens Americans suffered 6.2%

losses (12 killed and 60 wounded)

British suffered 90% losses

Cornwallis became obsessed with Morgan and turned to pursue him Morgan retreated into

Virginia

In a month Cornwallis had marched 225 miles without achieving decisive battle

Daniel Morgan

Yorktown From Aug 21 to Sept 26,

1781 Washington and Rochambeau (French) marched their armies from New York to Virginia

Simultaneously, De Grasse (French) sealed off the Chesapeake with the Navy

Objective was to trap and defeat Cornwallis’ army on the York Peninsula

Yorktown• Battle would begin with

two parallel siege lines followed by an assault

• Allies had an overwhelming advantage in numbers (16,000 to fewer than 8,000)

• On Oct 19, the British surrendered and in Sept 1783 they formally recognized American independence

The United States In 1787, Americans drafted the Constitution of the United

States which created a federal government based on popular sovereignty

The Bill of Rights in particular stressed individual liberties such as freedom of speech, the press, and religion

However, not everyone was granted full political and legal equality, only white men of property

Equality for all Americans would be an on-going struggle for many years, but still the early understanding of freedom, equality, and popular sovereignty in America would have broad implications throughout the world Remember Emerson’s “shot heard round the world”

French Revolution: Ancien Regime

The Americans sought independence from British imperial rule, but they kept British law and much of the British social and cultural heritage

On the other hand, French revolutionaries sought to replace the ancien regime (“the old order”) with new political, social, and cultural structures

French Revolution: Estates General

In May 1789, in an effort to raise taxes, King Louis XVI convened the Estates General, an assembly representing the entire French population through three groups known as estates

King Louis XVI

French Revolution: Estates General The first estate was about

100,000 Roman Catholic clergy

The second estate was about 400,000 nobles

The third estate was about 24 million others (serfs, free peasants, laborers)

In spite of these numerical discrepancies, each estate had one vote

ancien regime

French Revolution: Estates General

The third estate demanded sweeping political and social reform, but the other two estates resisted

On June 20, 1789, the third estate seceded from the Estates General and declared itself the National Assembly

Marie Antoinette

French Revolution: National Assembly The National Assembly vowed

not to disband until France had a written constitution

This assertion of popular sovereignty spread to Paris and on July 14 a crowd stormed the Bastille to seize weapons and ammunition

The garrison surrendered in the wake of great bloodshed The attackers severed the

commander’s head and paraded it through the streets on a pike

Insurrections spread throughout France Storming of the Bastille

French Revolution: Declaration

In Aug 1789, the National Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen Obviously influenced by the American Revolution

and the Declaration of Independence

Proclaimed the equality of all men, declared that sovereignty resided in the people, and asserted individual rights to liberty, prosperity, and security

Reforms of the National Assembly Reconfigured French society

Ended the fees and labor services the peasants owed their landlords

Seized church lands Abolished the first estate and defined

clergy as civilians Required clergy to take an oath of

loyalty to the state Made the king the chief executive but

deprived him of legislative authority (a constitutional monarchy)

Men of property could vote for legislators The motto of the National

Assembly was “Liberty, equality, fraternity”

The Convention Alarmed by the disintegration of monarchial

authority, the rulers of Austria and Prussia invaded France to support the king and restore the ancien regime

The revolutionaries responded by establishing the Convention, a new legislative body elected by universal male suffrage

The Convention abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic

The Convention Drafted people and

resources for use in the war through the levee en masse (universal conscription) A move toward

total war Used the guillotine

to execute enemies to include King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette in 1793 for treason

Maximilian Robespierre (1758-1794)

Led the radical Jacobin party which believed France needed complete restructuring and used a campaign of terror to promote their agenda

Dominated the Convention from 1793-1794

Robespierre and the Jacobins

Sought to eliminate the influence of Christianity Closed churches Forced priests to take wives Promoted a new “cult of reaso

n” as a secular alternative Devised a new calendar which

recognized no day of religious observance

Between the summers of 1793 and 1794, the Jacobins executed 40,000 people and imprisoned 300,000 "It is dreadful but necessary" ("Cest

affreux mais nécessaire"), from the Journal d'Autre Monde, 1794.

The Directory Many of the victims of the reign of terror were fellow

radicals who had fallen out of favor with Robespierre and the Jacobins

In July 1794, the Convention arrested Robespierre and his allies, convicted them of treason, and executed them

A group of conservative men of property seized power and ruled from 1795 to 1799 under a new institution called the Directory

The Directory sought a middle way between the ancien regime and radical revolution but had little success

In Nov 1799,Napoleon Bonaparte staged a coup d’etat and seized power

Napoleon (1769-1821) Was an officer under

King Louis XVI and had become a general at age 24

In a campaign of 1796-1797, he drove the Austrians from northern Italy and established French rule there

Napoleon (1769-1821) In 1799, he returned to

France and joined the Directory, but when Austria, Russia, and Britain formed a coalition to attack France and end the Revolution, Napoleon staged a coup

He overthrew the Directory, imposed a new constitution, and named himself first consul

In 1802, he became consul for life and in 1804 crowned himself emperor

Napoleon: The Concordat Brought stability to France Made peace with the Catholic Church

Concluded the Concordat with the pope in 1801 France would retain the church lands seized during

the Revolution, but France agreed to pay priests’ salaries, recognize Roman Catholic Christianity as the preferred faith of France, and extend freedom of religion to Protestants and Jews

Was a popular measure with people who supported the political and social goals of the revolution but didn’t want to replace Christianity with the cult of reason

Napoleon: Civil Code In 1804,Napoleon established the Civil Code

which further stabilized France Affirmed the political and legal equality of all adult

men Established a merit-based society in which

individuals qualified for education and employment because of talent rather than birth or social standing

Protected private property, even allowing aristocratic opponents of the Revolution to return to France and reclaim their property

Confirmed many of the moderate revolutionary policies of the National Assembly but removed many measures passed by the more radical Convention

Napoleon as Authoritarian Limited free speech, routinely

censoring newspapers

Established a secret police force and detained thousands of political opponents

Manipulated public opinion through systematic propaganda

Ignored elective bodies

Surrounded himself with loyal military officers

Set his family above and apart from the French people

Joseph Fouche, head of Napoleon’s secret police

End of Napoleon’s Empire

In 1812, Napoleon decided to invade Russia, believing that the Russians were conspiring with the British

Napoleon and his “Grand Army” of 600,000 soldiers captured Moscow, but the Russians refused to surrender

Instead, Russian patriots burned the city, leaving Napoleon without supplies or shelter

End of Napoleon’s Empire Napoleon was

forced to retreat Defeated by

“General Winter” Only 30,000

soldiers made it back to France

The defeat in Russia emboldened a coalition of British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies to converge on France Forced Napoleon to

abdicate his throne in April 1814

An episode from the retreat from Russia, by Nicolas-Toussaint Charlet

End of Napoleon’s Empire

The coalition restored the French monarchy and exiled Napoleon to the island of Elba, near Corsica

In March 1815, Napoleon escaped, returned to France, and reconstituted his army

This time the British defeated him at Waterloo and banished Napoleon to the remote island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic

He died in 1821

Other Impacts The Enlightenment ideals and the American and

French Revolutions also influenced: The Saint Domingue slave revolt (Lesson 5)

Simon Bolivar in South America (Lesson 5)

The abolition movement (Lesson 5)

The Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen

Elizabeth Cady Stanton and women’s rights movements

Compare and ContrastObjective Type of

WarfareReligion Philo-

sophical Rationale and Declara-tions

Interna-tionalReaction

Immedi-ate and Long-termResults

Am Rev

Fr Rev

Next Part 1:

Russian Revolution and Communism

Part 2: Fascism and National Socialism

Street demonstration in Petrograd, July 4, 1917