Memory

What is Memory?What is Memory?The outcome of The outcome of learninglearning

2 basic 2 basic categories of categories of learning:learning:1. Non-associative1. Non-associativeResults from an experience with a single type of event

2. Associative2. AssociativeCaused by the conjunction of 2 or more events

More on Information ProcessingMore on Information Processing

Sensory Registry (Sensory Storage)Sensory Registry (Sensory Storage)Data is stored in full detail in the sense organ for a fraction of a second.Data is stored in full detail in the sense organ for a fraction of a second.Almost unlimited capacityAlmost unlimited capacityRegistries:Registries:

VisualVisualIconic storageIconic storageEidetic imageryEidetic imagery

AuditoryAuditoryEchoic storageEchoic storage

AttentionAttentionThe selective filtering of incoming informationThe selective filtering of incoming informationThe “cocktail-party” phenomenonThe “cocktail-party” phenomenon


Short-Term MemoryShort-Term MemoryAlso called “working memory” or Also called “working memory” or “present conscious memory”“present conscious memory”Capacity limited to 7 +/- 2 chunks of Capacity limited to 7 +/- 2 chunks of information at a timeinformation at a timeTime limited to 1.5 to 2 seconds unless Time limited to 1.5 to 2 seconds unless rehearsedrehearsedThe serial-position effectThe serial-position effect

The primacy & recency effectsThe primacy & recency effectsEncoding in STMEncoding in STM

Phonological & visual codingPhonological & visual codingMaintaining information in STMMaintaining information in STM

Rote or Maintenance RehearsalRote or Maintenance Rehearsal


Long-Term MemoryLong-Term MemoryAlmost unlimited capacityAlmost unlimited capacity

Encoding in LTM by imagery & Encoding in LTM by imagery & meaningmeaning

Storing in LTM by a Storing in LTM by a semantic treesemantic tree or or semantic networksemantic network

Transferring from STM to LTM by Transferring from STM to LTM by Elaborative RehearsalElaborative Rehearsal

Associative organizationAssociative organization

Maintaining in LTM through rote Maintaining in LTM through rote and elaborative rehearsaland elaborative rehearsal

Types of Long-Term MemoryTypes of Long-Term Memory

Long-TermMemory

Explicit(Declarative)

Memory

Implicit(Non-Declarative)

Memory

EpisodicMemory

SemanticMemory

MotorSkills

Habits

SimpleClassically

ConditionedResponses

ProceduralMemory

Associations the Brain Associations the Brain MakesMakes

Everything we see, hear, touch, taste, smell, taste and think is interwoven with associations from past experiences. Basically, they give significance to the world around us. These associations contribute to our individual profile as a person. What we become conscious of depends on the number of associations triggered by a particular event. These associations are influenced by factors such as expectations, motivations, hunger, fatigue, temperature, & biochemistry. We don’t have to be conscious of the associations for them to affect us.

Boolean Operator Process Brain Association

AND More Specific Items Same as ….

NOT Excludes items Different than …

OR Alternative items Similar to …

NEAR Includes items Almost …

Examples:Same as … Cougar & Puma

Different than … Tiger & Lion

Similar to … Leopard & Jaguar

Almost … Felines

In the 19th Century, an English mathematician and logician, George Boole (1815-1864) devised a logical foundation for making sense or what appears to be illogical. This foundation became known as Boolean Operators or Boolean Logic. This is the same kind of logic used in computers, on the Internet, and in the brain as it makes associations. Boole described the four operators as: AND, OR, NOT, and NEAR.

ForgettingForgettingAmnesiaAmnesiaRetrograde AmnesiaRetrograde AmnesiaLoss of memory for events preceding an accident, injury, or disease without loss of earlier memories.

Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde AmnesiaLoss of memory for events after an accident, injury, or disease but not necessarily for subsequent memories.

Diseases of MemoryDiseases of MemoryAlzheimer’s DiseaseAlzheimer’s Disease

Parkinson’s DiseaseParkinson’s Disease

Korsakoff’s SyndromeKorsakoff’s Syndrome

The Interference Theory of ForgettingThe Interference Theory of Forgetting

Retroactive Retroactive InterferenceInterferenceNew memories block the retrieval of old memories; new learning interferes or inhibits your ability to remember something you had learned.

Proactive Proactive InterferenceInterferenceOld memories block the retrieval of newer memories: old learning interferes or inhibits your ability to learn something now.

Summary of Forgetfulness Concept Description ExampleDecay Theory Gradual fading of memory as a Facts you learned in school gradually

function of time fade out of memory over time.

Interference Theory Disruption of memory caused by After sifting through your psychology

interference of previously learned lecture, you forget what you learned in

material or newly learned material chemistry class the hour before.

Retrieval Theory Failure to access material stored in You have difficulty remembering

memory because of encoding failure something you know is stored in

or lack of retrieval cues memory.

Motivated Forgetting Repression of anxiety-provoking You cannot remember a traumatic

material childhood experience.

Retrograde Amnesia Loss of memory of past events After suffering a blow to the head in a

car accident, you are unable to remem-

ber details of the accident itself.

Anterograde Amnesia Loss of impairment of the ability to Due to a brain disorder, you find it

form or store new memories difficult to retain new information

The Fallibility of The Fallibility of MemoryMemory

Improper storage cuesImproper storage cuesThe memories weren’t given the appropriate cues to encode them properly

Memory changes over Memory changes over timetimeNeuronal and biochemical changes reconstruct & deconstruct memories

Memory’s Fallacies

1. Transience: The forgetting that occurs with the passing of time.

2. Absent-mindedness: Often attributed to 4 things, 1) divided attention, 2) insufficient attention at the time of encoding, 3) “operating on automatic,” and 4) encoding at an extremely shallow level.

3. Blocking: Retrieval cues are unavailable even though a word or name has been encoded and stored.

4. Misattribution: Recalling events that never happened or recalling them incorrectly or at the wrong time or place. This occurs in the absence of suggestion.

5. Suggestibility: The tendency to use misleading information from external cues into personal recollections.

6. Bias: Memories of the past are rescripted to fit your present views and needs (past events are filtered by current knowledge, memories are shaped to your present interpretation of the world, the past is constructed as similar or different than the present).

7. Persistence: Remembering things you wish to forget (failures, traumas, sadness, disappointments, etc.).

Situational Factors in Situational Factors in MemoryMemory

State Dependent State Dependent MemoryMemoryLearning is best when you are in a particular state of mind and best remembered when in that same state.

Context Dependent Context Dependent MemoryMemoryIt’s easier to remember something when you’re in the same context in which you learned it.

Why Do We Forget?Why Do We Forget?The lower brain checks The lower brain checks out emotional out emotional possibilities & alerts the possibilities & alerts the cortexcortex

Translation from STM to Translation from STM to LTM involves processing LTM involves processing the meaning of the the meaning of the stimulus & categorizes stimulus & categorizes it.it.

SIS is clear but each SIS is clear but each new impression new impression destroys the one before.destroys the one before.

The primacy & recency The primacy & recency effectseffects

Retrieving InformationRetrieving Information

Styles of Styles of RetrievalRetrieval1. Sequential Search1. Sequential SearchGoing through each piece of information until the appropriate information is found.

2. Using Retrieval Cues2. Using Retrieval CuesRetrieval is through a semantic network of associations.

Improving Improving MemoryMemory

1.1. AttentionAttention2.2. Rehearsal & RepetitionRehearsal & Repetition3.3. OrganizationOrganization

ImageryMethod of LociMnemonics

4.4. OverlearningOverlearning5.5. MeaningfulnessMeaningfulness

Education

Memory