Managing Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict

Rhea Ruto Legaspi - Crispolon

OverviewConflict DefinedDistinguishing between functional and

Dysfunctional ConflictAntecedents of ConflictHow to Promote Functional ConflictAlternatives Styles of Handling ConflictContingency Approach to Manage ConflictEffective Teamwork Teams and Work Teams Defined

Introduction

Before going any further, let us first give a brief description of what conflict is. There are actually a lot of ways to define conflict due to how it is used in many areas. Hence, to keep it simple for the layman, conflict pertains to the opposing ideas and actions of different entities, thus resulting in an antagonistic state. Conflict is an inevitable part of life. Each of us possesses our own opinions, ideas and sets of beliefs.

We have our own ways of looking at things and we act according to what we think is proper. Hence, we often find ourselves in conflict in different scenarios; may it involve other individuals, groups of people, or a struggle within our own selves. Consequently, conflict influences our actions and decisions in one way or another.

Therefore, it is essential to understand the basic processes of conflict so that we can work to maximize productive outcomes and minimize destructive ones. This paper will briefly describe some common sources of conflict, the levels of social interaction at which conflict occurs, and the general strategies of approaching conflict that are available.

Conflict Defined Conflict is inevitable among humans.

When two or more social entities (i.e., individuals, groups, organizations, and nations) come in contact with one another in attaining their objectives, their relationships may become incompatible or inconsistent. Relationships among such entities may become inconsistent when two or more of them desire a similar resource that is in short supply;

when they have partially exclusive behavioral preferences regarding their joint action; or when they have different attitudes, values, beliefs, and skills. “Conflict is the perception of differences of interests among people” (Thompson, 1998, p. 4).

a process of social interaction involving a struggle over claims to resources, power and

status, beliefs, and other preferences and desires. The aims of the parties in conflict may extend from simply attempting to gain acceptance of a preference, or securing a resource advantage, to the extremes of injuring or eliminating opponents. (Bisno, 1988, pp. 13–14; see also Coser, 1968, p. 232)

a type of behavior which occurs when two or more parties are in opposition or in battle as a result of a perceived relative deprivation from the activities of or interacting with another person or group (Litterer, 1966, p. 180).

Levels of Conflict

Interpersonal Conflict

Intergroup Conflict

Interpersonal Conflict

Interpersonal conflict refers to the manifestation of incompatibility, disagreement, or difference between two or more interacting individuals

This is also known as dyadic conflict. It refers to conflict between two or more organizational members of the same or different hierarchical levels or units. The studies on superior–subordinate conflict relate to this type of conflict.

Reasons Why Interpersonal Conflicts Occur

Personality differences

Perceptions

Clashes of values and interests

Power and status

differences

Intergroup conflict

Occurs between collections of people such as ethnic or racial groups, departments or levels of decision making in the same organization, and union and management. Competition for scarce resources is a common source of intergroup conflict, and societies have developed numerous regulatory mechanisms, such as collective bargaining and mediation, for dealing with intergroup conflict in less disruptive ways. Social-psychological processes are very important in intergroup conflict (Fisher, 1990).

Intergroup conflict refers to the collective incompatibility or disagreement between

two or more divisions, departments, or subsystems in connection with tasks, resources, information, and so on. Roloff (1987)

Baron (1990; see also Mack & Snyder, 1957), after reviewing anumber of recent definitions of conflict, concluded that although definitions arenot identical, they overlap with respect to the following elements:

1.Conflict includes opposing interests between individuals or groups in a zero-sum situation;

2. Such opposed interests must be recognized for conflict to exist;

3. Conflict involves beliefs, by each side, that the other will thwart (or has already thwarted) its interests;

4. Conflict is a process; it develops out of existing relationships between individuals or groups and reflects their past interactions and the contexts in which these took place;

5. Actions by one or both sides do, in fact, produce thwarting of others’ goals.

One of the earlytheorists on conflict, Daniel Katz (1965), created a typology that distinguishes three mainsources of conflict:

Economic Conflict

Value Conflict

Power Conflict

Ineffective Communication

Conflictoccurs when one or (two) social entities:

1. Is required to engage in an activity that is incongruent with his or her needs or interests;

2.Holds behavioral preferences, the satisfaction of which is incompatible with another person’s implementation of his or her preferences;

3. Wants some mutually desirable resource that is in short supply, such that the wants of everyone may not be satisfied fully;

4. Possesses attitudes, values, skills, and goals that are salient in directing one’s behavior but that are perceived to be exclusive of the attitudes, values, skills, and goals held by the other(s);

5.Has partially exclusive behavioral preferences regarding joint actions; and

6.Is interdependent in the performance of functions or activities.

Functions of conflict parallel to each other among groups and within groups.

Distinguishing Functional from Dysfunctional

Conflict

Introduction

Conflict happens when two or more contradictory perspectives haven’t been agreed on, but it’s not necessarily a bad thing. In fact, when handled well, conflict forces us to be creative problem-solvers, to avoid mistakes, and to learn how to benefit from our differences, all while challenging us to broaden our skills (Sloboda, Rick, 2010).

Two Kinds of Organizational Conflicts

Functional Conflict

Dysfunctional Conflict

Functional Conflict

conflict forces us to be creative problem-solvers, to avoid mistakes, and to learn how to benefit from our differences, all while challenging us to broaden our skills(Sloboda, 2010).

sees conflict as a productive force, one that can stimulate members of the organization to increase their knowledge and skills, and their contribution to organizational innovation and productivity

provides people with feedback about how things are goingRichards (2012) added that that conflict

can be good for organizations because it encourages

open-mindedness and helps avoid the tendency toward group think that many organizations fall prey to. The key is learning how to manage conflict effectively so that it can serve as a catalyst, rather than a hindrance, to organizational improvement

The conflict which supports the goals of a group and also improves it performance is known as a functional or a positive conflict. The functional conflict is helpful in the achievement of the goals of a group.

For conflict to be functional, it has to be seen positively in the following ways (Fay, 1999) :

Functional

Conflict

The functional conflict is helpful in the achievement of the goals of a group as it aids in –

Analytical thinking

Diffusing tension among the members of the group

Promote competition

Promote group cohesiveness

Facing challenges

Organizational change

Increased awareness

Quality of decision

Identification of weakness

Dysfunctional ConflictDysfunctional conflict is the opposite of

functional conflict. It causes disruption. Any confrontation or interaction between

groups that harms the organization or hinders the

achievement of organizational goals is dysfunctional conflict. Management must seek to eliminate dysfunctional conflict. Dysfunctional conflicts inhibits achievements of organizational goals.

Functional vs. Dysfunctional Conflict

Functional Conflict

serves organization’s

interests

Antecedents of Conflict

Antecedent conflict is the concept or theory that suggests events that happen early in life which are troubling, traumatic, or disturbing bring about intense reactions to conflict during adult life. This is not to say that people who simply don't deal with problems well have antecedent conflict. Rather, responses to conflict are severe and very intense, well outside the "normal" range or responding.

Incompatible personalities

or value systems

Overlapping or unclear job

boundaries

Competition for limited resources

Interdepartmental/

intergroup competition

Inadequate communicatio

n

Interdependent tasks

Organizational complexity

Unreasonable or unclear policies,

standards, or rules

Unreasonable deadlines or extreme time

pressure

Collective design making

Decision making by consensus

Unmet expectations

Unresolved or suppressed

conflicts

How to Promote Functional Conflict

Functional conflict can be good for an organization. It promotes the healthy exchange of ideas, clears the air and promotes creative thought and keen decision making. Leaders should build conflict into decision-making processes, says Michael Roberto, professor of management at Bryant University in Rhode Island and former Harvard Business School professor. Some companies pride themselves on having a collegial culture, and the idea of conflict is anathema to them. But good things happen when opposing views go head-to-head. Progressive leaders know how to generate functional conflict within a team when needed.

Creating Functional Conflict

Instructions

Lead by example

Assign a devil's advocate during decision-making processes

Role-play the competitor's reaction

Repeat the role play, this time assigning Group A to play the customer, Group B to be investors and Group C to be consultants

Involve the naysayers

Creating Functional Conflict

Tips and Warnings

Acknowledge that more than one person can be right. This creates an attitude more conducive to good conflict.

Learn to use language that encourages open communication while you work through conflict. Your first comment to the dissenter might be, for example, "Please tell me more."

Dissenting arguments should be grounded in facts.

The purpose of functional conflict is not to delay decision making indefinitely. Good leaders may need to intervene in a group that is caught in a cycle of endless meetings and dysfunctional conflict.

Alternative Styles of Handling Conflict

Regardless of the level of conflict, there are differing approaches to deal with the incompatibilities that exist. Conflict can result in destructive outcomes or creative ones depending on the approach that is taken. If we can manage conflict creatively, we can often find new solutions that are mutually satisfactory to both parties.

Given interdependence, three general strategies have been identified that the parties may taketoward dealing with their conflict; win-lose, lose-lose, and win-win (Blake, Shepard & Mouton,1964).

Strategies in Dealing Conflict

win-lose approach

lose-lose strategy

win-win approach

A Two-Dimensional Model of the Styles of Handling Interpersonal Conflict

Negotiation Styles Understanding the Five Negotiation Styles People often ask "which is the best negotiation

style?" As with much management theory there is no single 'best' or 'right' approach. All five profiles of dealing with conflict are useful in different situations. Although we're capable of using all five, most of us tend to have one or two preferred negotiation conflict styles that we use unconsciously in most conflict situations. Why? Either because our preferred styles have worked for us in the past, or because of our temperament (nature) or because of our upbringing (nurture).

Conclusion:

Conflict is an inevitable fact of human existence. If we work to understand and manage it effectively, we can improve both the satisfaction and productivity of our social relationships.

Contingency Approach to Manage ConflictManagement scholars now agree that

there is no one best approach to make decisions, to lead, and to motivate. The contingency approach (also called situational

approach), which is the hallmark of contemporary management, has replaced the simplistic “one best” approach (Pennings, 1992).

The theory suggests that when the decision quality and acceptance are both low, the leader should use the autocratic style. On the contrary,

if the decision quality and acceptance are both high, the leader should use the participative style. Therefore, it appears that effective leadership depends on matching leadership styles with situations. Failure to match these two variables leads to ineffective leadership.

Conclusion:The importance of managing conflict is evident.

Reducing the negative effects and increasing the positive impacts is critical in a balanced workplace. Leaders must skirt the fine line of reducing conflict and allow conflict to foster good results. Clearly, leadership must manage some conflict to reduce its impact while allowing some conflict to remain unmanaged in order to increase overall results. In today’s rapidly changing workplace environments, conflict and change are formidable challenges to meet. Both have the potential to greatly impact an organization’s workforce, and, ultimately, its bottom line.

Managers must possess an understanding of human behavior and an ability to create healthy, secure work environments. They must also be able to meet the needs of individual employees, while still achieving organizational goals. Exemplary leaders understand that excellent management principles are vital for keeping pace in a rapidly changing world. They know these principles are the tools that help to create empowered employees and strong organizations (McDowell, et al).

If we work to understand and manage conflict effectively and efficiently, we can improve both the satisfaction and productivity of our social relationship. Conflict should be handled properly and with precautions in order to maintain the good relationship between the employers and employees so that the organization will be able to achieve its goals, objectives, mission and vision.

Effective Teamwork

Teams and Work Teams Defined

TeamsA group of people with different skills

and different tasks, who work together on a common project, service, or goal, with a meshing of functions and mutual support.

Common Characteristics of Effective Teams

1. The purpose, mission, or main objective is known and understood by all team members.

2. Communication in the team is open, direct and honest.

3. Sufficient leadership is available in the team.

4. There is regular review of how well the team is performing toward achieving its purpose.

5. There is an agreed organizational structure to the team.

6. Adequate resources are available to permit the team to perform it’s function, including skills, tools, facilities, and budgets.

7. Synergy exists, so the team performs in a way that is greater than the sum of its parts.

Why Use Teams More knowledge and skill is brought to the problem.

Information flow is more effective.

More people are aware of the full breadth of the problem

Meetings are more productive and goal-oriented.

Better decisions are made.

Team problems are identified sooner and more clearly.

Team members learn from each other.The team becomes more cohesive and develops a stronger sense of belonging to the organization.

Overall morale improves.

More is accomplished than is possible by equivalent individual efforts.Productivity and time savings are achieved by eliminating duplication efforts.Absenteeism and missed deadlines are reduced.

Team members understand organizational issues better.

Management work is shared.

Teams set and achieve tougher goals than individuals.

Team Develop

ment Stages

Forming

Storming

Norming

Performing

Team Development Stages

Forming People are cautious, guarded,

wondering. Little visible disagreement.Lack of identity. Little investment in the group.Watching to see what is expected of

teammembers and what is acceptable from

teammembers.

Storming

Conflict occurs. Work is in fits and starts and not very productive. High level of frustration and/or confusion.Pairing and cliques develop.Beginning development of identity,

purpose and interest.People take risks and get to know one

another.

Norming

Developing goals, roles, and relationships. Learning to appreciate differences in

people. Conflict is about issues, not egos or people. Communication is open and clear. Sense of belonging develops.Progress is beginning to be made. Work becomes enjoyable.

Performing

Team acts on common goals, with synergy, high morale, and high productivity.

Easy shifting of roles from one to another. Differences are valued. Team members look out for one another’s

interests. Spontaneous, collaborative efforts. Sharing of all relevant information. Conflict is frequent, but leads to problem

solving.

Team Development Tasks Define team purpose. Review performance against purpose. Define a team vision, a long term view of

where the team wants to be in the foreseeable future.

Discuss the team’s work norms and traditions.

Assess the current stage of team development and identify barriers to further development.

As a group, define the roles of team members.

Create team plans.Evaluate performance to the plans. Develop a process to obtain useful

feedback from outside sources (customers, management, other groups).

Participate as a team in a team skill learning event.

Participate as a team in a challenging or enjoyable experience (cruise, bike trip, outdoor challenge, charitable fund raiser, etc.).

Work Teams

Work teams are responsible for the actual act of creating tangible products and services (Devine, 2002). The actual workers on an assembly line would be an example of a production team, whereas waiters and waitresses at a diner would be an example of a service team.

it is one of the common categories and subtypes of teams

Team Effectiveness The formation of teams is most appropriate for tasks that are difficult,

complex and important. These types of tasks are often beyond the skills and abilities of any single individual. However, the formation of a team to complete such tasks does not guarantee success. Rather, the proper implementation of teams is positively related to both member satisfaction and increased effectiveness. Organizations who want to receive the benefits afforded by teams need to carefully consider how teams are built and implemented. Often, teams are created without providing members any training to develop the skills necessary to perform well in a team setting. This is critical, because teamwork can be cognitively and interpersonally demanding. Even when a team consists of talented individuals, these individuals must learn to coordinate their actions and develop functional interpersonal interactions. In their review of the relevant scientific literature, Kozlowski and Ilgen demonstrated that such training can greatly benefit team effectiveness. Finally, teams are more likely to be successful when they are fully supported by the organization

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