- 1.CONTEMPORARY PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON TERRORISM Presenter:
Syed Altaf Hussain Guide: Ms Th Shivata 1
2. Contents: Introduction Concept of Terrorism Definition of
Terrorism Types of Terrorism Categories of Terrorist Groups
Psychological Impact of Terrorist Attack Psychological Explanation
for Terrorism First Generation Research Contemporary Psychological
Research on Terrorism Limitation of Psychological Research on
Terrorism Conclusion 2 3. Introduction Terrorism is one of the
biggest challenge and threat the peaceful world has ever seen. Task
of preventing terrorism requires comprehension of causes behind
terrorism or terrorist activity. We hope to identify what the
psychology of terrorism says and why contemporary psychological
research is needed. 3 4. If we are to defeat terrorism, it is our
duty, and indeed our interest, to try to understand this deadly
phenomenon, and carefully to examine what works, what does not, in
fighting it. (UN Secretary General, 2003) 4 5. Concept of Terrorism
Terrorism is a physical, psychological warfare and the behavioral
disturbances is the primary intention of terrorist. 5 6. Zealots,
during 66-72 AD were Jewish resistance to Roman occupation involved
killing of Roman soldiers and destruction of Roman property.
Assasin during 1090-1275 resisted against Crusader in middle east.
French Revolution (coined) provided the first use of the words
(terrorisme in French) Terrorist and Terrorism in 1795 in reference
to the Reign of Terror initiated by the Revolutionary government
and provided an example of future states in oppressing their
populations. 6 7. The word Terrorism and Terrorist carry strong
negative connotations or negative publicity objectively whereas
subjectively they proclaim to be: Separatist Freedom fighter
Revolutionary Vigilante Militant Paramilitary Guerilla Rebel
Patriot 7 8. Terrorism should define the acts rather than persons,
because the labeling of people and groups as terrorist is
ambiguous, depending on the perspective and affiliation of the
person applying the label: the same group of people may be called
terrorists by some and freedom fighters by others. Friedland (1988)
8 9. Genocide Vs Terrorism: If the aggression is directed at the
persecution and killing of entire groups for racial, political,
religious or other reasons, then it takes the form of genocide.
Staub (1989) Terrorists often cultivate an attitude of moral
superiority over their victims from which they derive justification
for their violent actions. Baumeister et al. (1996) 9 10. Some
examples of terrorist groups: Irish Republican Army (IRA) of
Ireland Red Army Faction in Germany (RAF) Liberation Tigers of
Tamil Eelam (LTTE) Al-Qaida 10 11. Definitions of Terrorism: The
calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence
to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments
or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political,
religious or ideological. US DOD (2007) Terrorist is one who
terrorizes the general population. 11 12. Terrorism is the use or
the threat of the use of violence, a method of combat, or a
strategy to achieve certain targets. It aims to induce a state of
fear in the victim, that is ruthless and doesnt conform with
humanitarian rules. Publicity is an essential factor in the
terrorist strategy. (Walter Laqueur, 1987) The use of violence to
provoke consciousness, to evoke certain feelings of sympathy and
revulsions. (David Rapoport, 1977) 12 13. Types of Terrorism
Suicide Terrorism: A suicide attack is an operational method in
which the very act of the attack is dependent upon the death of the
perpetrator. A suicide attack is a newsworthy event for the media,
as it indicates a display of great determination and inclination
for self-sacrifice on the part of the terrorists. Hoffman Bruce
(2006) 13 14. Counter Terrorism: Counter terrorism is an obligation
of states and an integral part of the fight against terrorism.
State Terrorism: State-sponsored terrorism is government support of
paramilitary organizations engaged in terrorism False Flag
Terrorism: It is a covert military operations designed to deceive
in such a way that the operations appear as though they are carried
out by other entities, groups or nations. 14 15. Information
Terrorism: A direct impact and peoples consciousness, involving a
violent propaganda impact on the psyche, in order to create
necessary opinions and judgments, some way guides behavior. Listen
Scarecrow: Its a rumor, carrying and causing negative, frightening
mood and emotional states, reflecting some actual, but unwanted
audience expectations, in which they arise and spread. 15 16.
Economic Terrorism: At lower level, in the competition among
corporation, it can be to play the fall in the value of shares of
competitors, their buying, bringing to the bankruptcy etc., Social
(Domestic) Terrorism: Daily harassment, with which we are
confronted in the street, at home, rampant street crime, rising
criminality, general social instability and massive living
conditions. 16 17. Terrorism in latest form Cyber-terrorism
Cyber-terrorism is the convergence of terrorism and cyberspace. It
is generally understood to mean unlawful attacks and threats
against computers, networks and information stored therein when
done to intimidate or coerce a government or its people in
furtherance of political or social objective. (Denning, 2000) 17
18. Terrorist: A person, group, or organization that uses violent
action, or the threat of violent action, to further political
goals; frequently in an attempt to coerce either a more powerful
opponent, or conversely, a weaker opponent. 18 19. Categories of
Terrorist Groups Separatist Ethnocentric Nationalistic
Revolutionary Political Religious Social Domestic International 19
20. Psychological Impact of Terrorism Acute Stress Disorder Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) Depression Anxiety Separation
Anxiety Disorder Agoraphobia Phobic Disorders Bereavement
Somatisation Continue 20 21. Irritability Dissociative Reactions
Sleep Disturbances Diminished Self-Esteem Deterioration in School
Performance Distress when Exposed to Traumatic Reminders Substance
Abuse Sadock et al (2012) 21 22. About 5% of elementary
schoolchildren reported clinically significant levels of symptoms
of PTSD, 1-year after Oklahoma City bombing. (Gurwitch et al, 2002)
60% of parents in the New York City reported that their children
were moderate post-traumatic stress reactions. (Fairbrother et al,
2003) 22 23. In New York City, 6 months later Sept, 11 2011, 28.6%
of children had at lead one probable anxiety / depressive disorder,
the most common being agoraphobia (14.8%), separation anxiety
(12.3%) and PTSD (10.6%). (Lengua et al, 2005) 23 24. PTSD appears
to be the most common disorder attributable to the attack followed
by depression. (North et al, 1999) PTSD is likely the most
prevalent and debilitating consequence of disasters in general and
terrorism in particular. (Galea, 2002) 24 25. Psychological
Explanation for Terrorism Instinct Theory: (Psychoanalytic) Sigmund
Freud in dual instinct theory, proposed that individual behavior is
driven by two basic forces: Eros, the life instinct (Life force)
Thanatos, the death instinct (Death force) Freud (1920)25 26. Eros
drives the person towards pleasure seeking and wish fulfillment
whereas thanatos is directed at self-destruction. Due to the
antagonistic nature, the two instincts are a source of sustained
intra-psychic conflict, which can be resolved only by diverting the
destructive forces away from the person onto others. Freud consider
releasing destructive energy through non-aggressive expressive
behavior (ex: Jokes) but with only temporary effect, is catharsis.
26 27. Drive Theory: (Frustration-Aggression) Cause of human
violence is the basic premise of the frustration-aggression (FA)
hypothesis is twofold: Aggression is always produced by frustration
Frustration always produced aggression 27 28. It was only aversive
frustration that would lead to aggression. Frustration leads to
anger and anger in the presence of aggressive cues, would lead to
aggression. Berkowitz (1989) 28 29. Social Learning Theory: If
aggression is a learned behavior, then terrorism, a specific type
of aggressive behavior, can also be learned. (Oots & Weigele,
1985) 29 30. Aggression is explained as the result of a drive to
end a state of frustration, whereby frustration is defined as
external interference with the goal- directed behavior of the
person. (Dollard et at., 1939) 30 31. Cognitive Theory: According
to cognitive theory, The actions of terrorists are based on the
subjective interpretation of the world rather than objective
reality. Perceptions of the political and social environment are
filtered through beliefs and attitudes that reflect experiences and
memories. (Crenshaw, 1988) 31 32. Biological Approach: (i)
Neurochemical Factors: In the absence of provocative stimuli,
decreased Serotonin (5HT) functioning may have little effect on the
level of aggressive behavior exhibition by humans. Compared to
serotonin, the relationship between both dopamine and
norepinephrine and human aggression is less clear (Berman et al,
1997) 32 33. (ii) Hormonal Factors: There is not good empirical
evidence to support testosterone poisoning as a cause of
disproportionate violence in males. Benton (1992) Lower than
average levels of arousal (Ex: Low resting heart rate) and low
reactivity are consistently found in studies of people who engage
in aggressive and antisocial behavior. Raine, 1993, 1997 33 34. (i)
Neuropsychological Factors: Theoretical and empirical evidence
suggests that dysfunction or impairment in the prefrontal cortex
may be responsible for the psycho-physiologic deficits found in
people who engage in antisocial and aggressive behavior. (Raine,
1993, 1997) 34 35. Raw Empirical Approach: An aspect of personal
behavior or lifestyle, an environmental exposure, or an inborn or
inherited characteristic which on the basis of epidemiological
evidence is known to be associated with health-related conditions
considered important to prevent. 35 36. Rapid modernization and
urbanization in the form of high economic growth has also been
found to correlate strongly with the emergence of ideological
terrorism, but not with ethno- nationalist terrorism. Lack of
opportunity for political participation, Terrorist retaliations can
thus occur as a result of unusual and unexpected use of force by
the government, so-called action-reaction syndrome (Crenshaw 1981)
36 37. FIRST GENERATION PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON TERRORISM
Terrorism was pathologized as the manifestations of psychological
and behavioral deviance, mainly based on the psychoanalytic
framework. Two themes were formulated: motives for terrorism are
largely unconscious and arise from hostility towards ones parents
Terrorism is the product of early abuse and maltreatment 37 38. One
has, I think, to reckon with the fact that there are present in all
men destructive, and therefore anti-social and anti-cultural,
trends and that in a great number of people these are strong enough
to determine their behavior in human society. (Freud, 1927) 38 39.
Narcissism: The possible linkage between narcissism and terrorism
was first advanced by Morf in 1970: many first generation
researchers attempted to focus on narcissism as a defining and
driving factor. based on the premises that terrorist behavior was
rooted in a personality defect that produced a damaged sense of
self. the essence of pathological narcissism is an overvaluing of
self and devaluing of others and these traits were seen among the
terrorists. 39 40. According to Crayton (1983), the two key
narcissistic dynamics are grandiose sense of self and parental
Image i.e. if I cant be perfect, at least Im in a relationship with
something perfect. narcissistically vulnerable person are drawn to
charismatic leader and the same group is held together by a
grandiose sense of self. Further more, Narcissistic rage has been
regarded as the primary psychologically precipitant of terrorist
aggression. 40 41. Sense of esteem is extraordinarily fragile,
makes the individual particularly vulnerable to any slights,
insults or ideas that threaten to shatter the faade of self-worth.
Such insults are known as narcissistic injuries and are the
triggers of narcissistic rage (Akhtar, 1999) 41 42. For early
psychological typologies Frederick Hacker (1976) proposed as:
Crusaders Criminals Crazies 42 43. Jerrold Post (1984) tried to
explain terrorism as a form of psychopathology or personality
defect into two different pattern: Anarchic-ideologue
Nationalist-Secessionist 43 44. Contemporary Psychological Research
on Terrorism (i) How and why do people entering and leave terrorist
organization (ii) How Psychopathology relevant for under- standing
terrorism (iii) How is individual personality and individuals life
experiences relevant to understanding and preventing terrorism (iv)
Role of ideology in terrorist behavior (v) What are the
Vulnerabilities for failures and decline of terrorist groups 44 45.
(i) People entering and leave terrorist organization Motives and
vulnerabilities: The motives to join a terrorist organization and
to engage in terrorism vary considerably across different types of
groups also within groups and they may change over time. 45 46.
Martha Crenshaw (1985) suggested that there are at least four
categories of motivation among terrorists: The opportunity of
action The need to belong The desire for social status and The
acquisition of material reward 46 47. Horgan (2003) has frame the
issues of vulnerabilities as the Factors that point to some people
having a greater openness to increased engagement than others.
Based on the literature review there are three motivational themes:
Injustice Identity and Belonging 47 48. Pathways to radicalized and
terrorism: Frederick Hacker (1983) framed the path to join
terrorism as: First Stage: Second Stage: Third Stage: 48 49.
PATHWAYS TO ENTER TERRORISM Bandura (1990) observed that the
pathway to terrorism can be shaped by fortuitous (accidental)
factors as well as the conjoint influence of personal predilections
and social inducement. But later, Horgan and Taylor (2001) stated
that most involvement in terrorism results from gradual exposure
and socialization towards extreme behavior. 49 50. Eric Shaw (1986)
reported that entering into terrorists organization has a four
stage process as: Early socialization process Narcissistic injuries
Escalatory events Personal connections to terrorist group members
50 51. Borum (2003) describes the development of extremist ideas
and their justification of violence as: Its not right Its not fair
Its your fault Youre evil 51 52. 52 The Process of Ideological
Development Its Not Its Not Its Your Youre Right Fair Fault Evil
Generalizing/ Stereotyping Social and Inequality and Economic
Resentment Blame/Attribute Deprivation Dehumanizing / Demonizing
the Enemy (Cause) Context Comparison Attribution Reaction 53. (ii)
How Psychopathology is relevant for Understanding terrorism?
Earlier it was assumed that terrorist in one way or the other are
not normal and that insights from psychology and psychiatry are
adequate keys to understand. However Crenshaw (1992) has
discredited the the idea of terrorism as the product of mental
disorder or psychopathology. 53 54. Major Mental Illness and
Maladaptive personality traits: it is difficult to study the
prevalence of psychopathology and maladaptive traits in terrorist
population. however research that does exists is fairly in
consistent in finding that serious psychopathology or mental
illness among terrorist are relatively rare and certainly not in
understanding or predicting terrorist behavior . (McCauley,2002 and
Sagement, 2004). 54 55. Terrorist are not dysfunctional or
pathological, rather terrorism is basically another form of
politically motivated violence that is perpetrated by rational,
lucid people who have valid motives. (Ruby, 2002) Terrorism is
regarded as a form of antisocial behavior. However they cannot be
generalized as having Anti-Social personality disorder. 55 56.
Martens (2004) acknowledge that not all terrorist have ASPD, but
individual who become terrorist share some characteristic with
person having ASPD like: social alienation, aggressive action
oriented, stimulus hungry, confrontation with police, etc
Psychopaths lack many qualities which are required in terrorism.
(Cooper, 1978) 56 57. Suicide Attacks: People usually associate
suicide with hopelessness, depression, the desire to end intense
and unbearable psychological pain and is usually associated with
mood disorder or schizophrenia, substance abuse or history of
attempted suicide. However Silke (2003) argues that there is no
indication that suicide bombers suffer from psychological disorders
or are mentally unbalance in other way. In contrast their
personality are quite stable and unremarkable. 57 58. Ariel Merari
found that there is no correlation between suicidal dynamics and
Mental pathology in Suicide Bombers. Suicide attackers view their
act as one of martyrdom, whether for their faith, their people or
their cause. They see themselves as having a higher purpose and are
convinced of an external reward through their actions. (Salib,
2003) 58 59. (iii) How is Individuals personality and life
experiences relevant for understanding and preventing terrorism:
Terrorist Personality and Profile: Attempts were made to study the
possible existence of Terrorist personality and profiling to
understand their behavior , however it has proved to be futile or
pointless, since It is difficult to generalize Their roles varies
It may overlap with the general population who will not commit
terrorist act59 60. - Childhood and Adult experiences Just as there
is no single terrorist personality or profile, a specific life
experiences is neither necessary nor sufficient to cause terrorism.
Contemporary literature found 3-themes for the causal explanation
of terrorism: Injustice Abuse and Humiliation 60 61. (iv) Role of
Ideology in terrorist behavior Ideologies are rules that are linked
to ones beliefs, values, principles and goals. Many religions
either embrace or sustain an ideology. Ideology may best be viewed
as a form of rule- following behavior. Ideology plays a crucial
role in terrorists target selection, it supplies terrorists which
an initial motive for action and provides a prism through which
they view events and the actions of other people. (Drake, 1998)61
62. Bandura states People dont ordinarily engage in reprehensible
conduct until they have justified to themselves the morality of
their actions. Terrorist must develop justifications for their
terrorist actions. (Cooper, 1977) 62 63. Taylor (1991) established
the connection between ideology and violent actions: Militant
potential; Totality of the ideology; and Perceived imminence in
millenarian achievement; 63 64. (v) What are the vulnerabilities
for failure and decline of terrorist groups? Internal factors: -
internal mistrust - boredom/inactivity - internal power competition
- major disagreement External factors: - external support -
constituencies - intergroup conflicts 64 65. Limitations for
Psychological Research on Terrorism Illegality and secretiveness of
terrorist organizations, security and intelligence considerations
can impede/hurdle access to data collection to make psychological
theory building. Most terrorist were unwilling to meet with
researchers. (Jager et al 1981) 65 66. Disagreement between
scholars studying terrorism seems to suggest that it may be too
simplistic and erroneous to explain an act of terrorism by a single
cause. (Hudson, 1999) 66 67. Conclusion First generation
psychological research which is mainly based on psychoanalysis has
failed to generalize the terrorism into any psychopathological
condition and it is not based on the empirical studies. Knowledge
of terrorism most certainly is deficient but the field shows no
clear ability to improve this situation. Based on the researches
conducted, many aspects of terrorism are still not clearly
explained and hence further researches are still required to have a
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