I. LearningA. It is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience or training.B. It is an ongoing process of continued adaptation to our environment, assimilation of new information, and accommodation of new input to fit prior knowledge.

II. Learning Theories(They are sets of conjectures and hypotheses that explain the process of learning or how learning takes place.)

A. Behavioral Learning Theories or Associative Learning Theories1. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Believes that individual learns when a previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus evokes a conditional response.

Includes the following:

a. Stimulus generalization a process by which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

b. Discrimination a process by which one learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner because of previous experiences.

c. Extinction the process by which a condition response is lost.

2. Connectionism Theory (Edward Thorndike)Puts more emphasis on the response of the organism not limiting himself to the association between the stimulus and the response.

Human activity is based on association between stimulus and response.

The three major laws of learning:

a. Law of readiness. Readiness is an important condition of learning. A learner may be satisfied or frustrated depending on his/her stage of readiness. The learner should be biologically prepared.

b. Law of exercise. Explains that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection. Practice alone is not enough for improvement.

c. Law of effect. When an organism’s response is accompanied or followed by a satisfactory state, the strength of the connection is increased. If an annoying state accompanies or follows the response, the strength of the connection is decreased. Rewards, successes or positive reinforcement further learning, while punishment, failure, or negative experiences hinder it.

3. Operant Conditioning (Burrhus Frederick Skinner)Organism has to do something in order to get reward, thus it must operate on its environment.

Types of reinforcement:

a. Positive reinforcement increases response frequency.b. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by their removal.

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Reinforcement Schedulesa. Fixed Interval Schedule. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has

passed since the last reinforcements.b. Variable Interval Schedule. The amount of time that must pass between reinforcement

varies.c. Fixed Ratio Schedule. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement

may occur.d. Variable Ratio Schedule. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for

reinforcement varies.

Types of punishment

a. Positive Punishment. A behavior decreases when it is followed by an unpleasant stimulus.b. Negative Punishment. A behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed from it.

Shaping. Used to teach relatively simple task by breaking the task down into small components and reinforcement is delivered all throughout the steps.

Chaining. Is used to break down complex tasks, and reinforcement is not delivered until the end, unless the learner can demonstrate the task in its entirety.

Premack or Grandma Rule. Is used to strengthen a less desired behavior by linking it to something that a child likes.

B. Constructivism (Discovery Learning) – Jerome BrunerLearning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.

Bruner believes that interest in the subject matter is the best stimulus for learning. He did not like external competitive goals such as grade or class ranking.

Three ways of representing knowledge:

1. Enactive. Represented in the muscles and involve motor responses or ways to manipulate the environment.2. Iconic. Learning is obtained through using models and pictures.3. Symbolic. Uses symbol system to encode knowledge.

C. Socio-Cultural Theory (Lev Vygotsky)Social interaction plays a very important role in cognitive development.

1. Scaffolding. Refers to the appropriate assistance given by the teacher to assist the learner to accomplish a task.2. Zone of Actual Development. Refers to the level a child is capable of achieving without the guidance of someone else. 3. Zone of Proximal Development. Is the difference between what a child can accomplish alone and what he can accomplish with the guidance of another.4. Scaffold and Fade-away Technique. Refers to the withdrawal of assistance once the learner becomes proficient in doing the task.

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D. Cognitive Learning TheoriesPrefers to concentrate on analyzing cognitive process.

Believe in the non-observable behavior.

1. Gestalt Theory (Kohler, Wertheimer and Koffka)The primary focus of this theory is on perception and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli.

Gestalt Principles:

a. Law of proximity. Elements that are close together will be perceived as a coherent object.b. Law of similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of the same form.c. Law of figure and ground. We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground

first.d. Law of good pragnanz. A person’s perception is based on his expectation.

2. Insight Theory (Wolfgang Kohler)Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing, and reconstructuring perceptions until solution is arrived at.

Reference:

Lucas, M. R. D., & Corpuz, B. B. (2011). Fascilitating learning: A metacognitive process (2nd ed.). Quezon City, Metro Manila: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

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