Learning process of physical skills

Theory

Learning Phases-Fitts & Posner (1967)1

2

3

4 Schema Theory-Schmidt (1975)

Closed Loop Theory-Adam (1971)

Social learning Theory-Adam (1961)

Theory

Learning Cycle-Kolb (1984)5

6

7

8

Learning Cycle-Whitmore(1984)

Effects of transfer of learning-Galligan(2000)

Transfer of learning-Galligan(2000)

Learning Phases-Fitts & Posner

There are three stages to learning a new skill: Cognit ive phase - Identification and development

of the component parts of the skill - involves formation of a mental picture of the skill.

Associat ive phase - Linking the component parts into a smooth action - involves practicing the skill and using feedback to perfect the skill.

Autonomous phase - Developing the learned skill so that it becomes automatic - involves little or no conscious thought or attention whilst performing the skill - not all performers reach this stage

Cognitive phase

This phase, sometimes referred to as the cognitive stage, occurs when the beginning athlete is attempting to understand the basic task. Challenges include how to hold the racquet, how to place the feet, and where the boundaries are.

Beginners are not always aware of what they did wrong, nor do they know how to correct errors. They need basic, specific instruction and feedback during this phase.

Associative phase

At this stage the athlete understands the fundamentals of the skill and is in the process of refining the skill. They experience fewer errors and can detect some of them on their own. Performances are more consistent and learners begin to know what is relevant and what is not.

Here the athlete refines what is needed to accomplish the objective of the skill regardless of the situation. They also begin to learn how to diversify responses for open skills.

Autonomous phase

This is the last of the stages of learning. At this point the skill is well learned. The athlete performs the skill automatically without having to focus on execution. There are few errors and athletes can detect and know how to correct them. They can concentrate more on other aspects of the game.

As athletes transition from learning the goal of the skill to perfecting it, coaches can diversify instruction and practice conditions.

For closed skills, practices should be structured to match the conditions of competition. For open skills, the coach must systematically vary the conditions under which the skill is being learned and performed in preparation for competition.

Social learning Theory-Adam

Three concepts: people can learn through observation. mental states are an essential part of this process. it will not necessarily result in a change of behavior. Three basic models of observational learning: A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating

or acting out a behavior. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and

explanations of a behavior. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters

displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media .

Closed Loop Theory-Adam

Two elements: Perceptual trace - a reference model acquired

through practice. Memory trace - responsible for initiating the

movement.

The key feature of this theory is the role of feedback:

Analyze the reference model actions, the result of those actions and the desired goals.

Refine the reference model to produce the required actions to achieve the desired goals.

Schema Theory-Schmidt Schmidt's theory was based on the view that actions are not

stored rather we refer to abstract relationships or rules about movement.

Schmidt's schema is based on the theory that that every time a movement is conducted four pieces of information are

gathered: the initial conditions - starting point certain aspects of the motor action - how fast, how high the results of the action - success or failure the sensory consequences of the action - how it felt Relationships between these items of information are used to

construct a recall schema and a recognition schema. The Recall schema is based on initial conditions and the results and is used to generate a motor program to address a new goal. The recognition schema is based on sensory actions and the outcome.

Learning Cycle-Kolb

Kolb developed a theory of experiential learning that can give us a useful model by which to develop our learning. The model comprises of four stages:

Concrete Experience - doing or having an experience Reflective Observation - reviewing & reflecting on the

experience Abstract Conceptualization - concluding & learning from the

experience Active Experimentation - planning & trying out what you have

learned

Kolb's learning styles

Learning Cycle-Kolb

Whitmore Learning Cycle Whitmore identified that our learning cycle

generally takes us through four stages: Unconscious incompetence - no understanding Conscious incompetence - low performance,

recognition of flaws and weak areas Conscious competence - improved performance,

conscious effort Unconscious competence - higher performance,

natural automatic effort

Transfer of learning Galligan suggests that the transfer of learning can take place in the following ways: Skil l to skil l This is where a skill developed in one sport has an influence on a skill in another sport. If the influence is on a new skill being

developed then this is said to be proactive and if the influence is on a previously learned skill then this is said to be retroactive.

Theory to practice The transfer of theoretical skills into practice. Training to competit ion The transfer of skills developed in training into the competition

situation.

Effects of transfer of learning

Galligan suggests that the effects of transfer can be:

Negative Where a skill developed in one sport hinders the performance

of a skill in another sport. Zero Where a skill in one sport has no impact on the learning of a

new sport. Posit ive Where a skill developed in one sport helps the performance of

a skill in another sport. Direct Where a skill can be taken directly from sport to another. Bilateral Transfer of a skill from side of the body to the other - use left

and right.