PRESENTATION

By Group CMembers :

SAMIKSHA MAINALI KRISHNA GUPTA

RANJANA YADAV Rupesh Niraula

Vhawana parajuli Yadav Adikari

Shakuntala Rauniyar

LEARNING

DATE :2071/03/19

Contents:o Concepto Theories of learning:

• Behavioral perspective Classical conditioning Operant conditioning

• Cognitive perspective Observational learning Insight learning

o Application of learning theories:• Shaping behavior

Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction

• Schedule of reinforcement • Behavior modification

Concept

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency and is the result of reinforced practice.

Characteristics of learning Learning is a continuous process. Learning is a key process in human behavior. Without learning, life becomes meaningless and

colorless. Learning shapes our thoughts, language, motivations,

emotions, personalities and attitudes. It ranges from simple to complex. It is influenced by the learning, stimulus, and

environmental factors.

Theories of learning

Behavioral perspective

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Cognitive perspective

Observational learning

Insight learning

A. Classical conditioning:

Russian physiologist and scientist Ivan P. Pavlov developed the conditioning technique known as ‘Pavlovian’ conditioning’.

He conducted much of his research on dogs, and example of classical conditioning can be found in many human behaviors.

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.

1. Behavioral perspective

BASIC ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

1. Neutral stimulus: A stimulus that before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

2. Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.

3. Unconditioned response: A response that is natural and needs no training.

4. Conditioned stimulus: A neutral stimulus that have been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formally caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.

5. Conditioned response: A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

Experiment based on classical conditioning

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Extinction: A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequently and eventually disappears.

Spontaneous recovery: The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning.

Stimulus generalization: A process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response.

Stimulus discrimination: The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one envokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)

2. Operant conditioning

pioneer of the operant conditioning.

Skinner developed a “behavioral technology “that enabled him to teach pigeon, animals, and human a desired behavior.

“All we need to know in order to describe and explain behavior is this: actions followed by good outcomes are likely to recur , and actions followed by bad outcomes are less likely to recur.” (Skinner, 1953)

B. Operant conditioning :

It is derived from the word ‘operate’.

Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences" (1953).

Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Key Terms:

Operant ConditioningLearning through voluntary behavior and its subsequent consequences; reinforcement increases behavioral tendencies, whereas punishment decreases them.

ReinforcementStrengthens a response and makes it more likely to recur.

Punishment

Weakens a responseand makes it less likely to recur.

Experiment based on classical conditioning

Let’s have a look on experiment conducted by B.F Skinner..\learning\hyperlink folder\An example of a Skinner Box.mp4

Consequences are Key!

2. Cognitive perspective

A. Observational learning

1. Shaping Behavior

Shaping is an experimental process used in operant conditioning by which successive approximations of a target behavior are reinforced.

This method relies on the : Use of behavioral reinforcement Use of behavioral punishment

Application of learning theories:

Shaping

Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Extinction

Punishment

Reinforcement

Procedure that: increases the likelihood that the response will occur & strengthen behavior

It is the application or removal of a stimulus to increase the strength of a specific behavior.

There are two types of reinforcement: Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

It strengthens responses that precede occurrence of stimulus.

It involves the impact of positive reinforces.

Positive reinforces - event or stimuli that increases the probability that the responses will occur again in the future.

Factors influencing Positive reinforcement

Timing

Consistency in providing reinforcement

The reinforcer must be reinforcing

Negative Reinforcement

It strengthens responses that permit the escape or avoidance of stimulus.

It involves the impact of negative reinforcers.

Negative reinforcers- event or stimuli that strengthens responses that lead to their termination or avoidance.

Types of Negative reinforcement

Escape conditioning:Behavior is reinforced by the elimination of expected event

from happening.

Avoidance conditioning:Behavior is reinforced by preventing an expected event from

happening.

Punishment

A punishment has the opposite affect, decreasing the likelihood, or rate of responding to a target response.

Punishment, when appropriately used, can be a valuable tool for discouraging inappropriate behavior.

Punishment is also positive and negative.

Factors influencing Punishment

The punishment should be applied immediately after the undesired responses that is to be eliminated.

The punishment should be strong enough to make a real difference.

Punishment should be applied uniformly.

Provide alternative desired reinforcer for the person.

Extinction

Extinction refers to the systematic withholding of the reinforcers which had previously maintained a behavior.

Ignoring a behavior is an example of extinction if that behavior has been maintained by the attention of the person doing the ignoring.

Extinction is likely to work effectively under these conditions:

If the person has previously received continuous reinforcement for the behavior.

If reinforcement has occurred only a few times. If the person is not excessively deprived of the reinforcer. If the behavior requires a great deal of effort. If it is possible to withdraw all the reinforcers. If extinction can be combined with punishment, reinforcement of

an alternative behavior, or modeling.

2. Schedule of reinforcement

Reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur. A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating which instance of a behaviour will be reinforced.

In operant conditioning ,schedules of reinforcement are an important component of the learning process when and how often we reinforce a behaviour can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the response.

Certain types of reinforcement may be more effective in specific situations

A. Continuous reinforcement:- It is a conditioning principle where the subject is rewarded

every time it does the appropriate action.B. Partial reinforcement:- Partial reinforcement is when an individual is rewarded on

some but not all, trials. There are four kinds of partial reinforcement:- Fixed –ratio schedule Variable ratio schedule fixed interval schedule variable interval schedule

3. Behavior modification

A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors & decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones

It is a great way to address a variety of behavior problem, The techniques are often applied in every life tries to stimulate & maintain desired & extinguish undesired

behavior targets specific behaviors that require change Also know as Applied behavior analysis (ABA) It cosisits of four components ie

Positive reinforcement Negetive reinforcement Positive punishment Negetive punishment

Steps of Behavior Modification

Identifying goals & target behaviors.Designing a data recording system & recording

preliminary data.Selecting a behavior change strategy.Implementing the program.Keeping careful records after the program is implemented.Evaluating & altering the ongoing program.

Mr Arjun Rai

All the Viewes

And all the Group members

Our Hearties Thanks to