Language planning

Language Planning

IntroductionSome

Basic issuesA Variety of Situations

Some otherVoices

IntroductionIntroduction

Birth of language planniBirth of language planningng

How language planning iHow language planning is defined s defined

Some examplesSome examples The reasons for languagThe reasons for languag

e planninge planning Language planning is caLanguage planning is ca

rried out by whomrried out by whom

Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Birth of Language PlanningBirth of Language Planning

Language planning was first put forLanguage planning was first put forward by Uriel Weinrich, in 1957, at ward by Uriel Weinrich, in 1957, at a seminar held in Columbia Universa seminar held in Columbia University, the U.S.ity, the U.S.

In the literature concerned with "lanIn the literature concerned with "language planning", the American-Norguage planning", the American-Norwegian sociolinguist Einar Haugen iwegian sociolinguist Einar Haugen is often mentioned as the person ws often mentioned as the person who gave birth to the concept. In the ho gave birth to the concept. In the article "Language Planning in Modearticle "Language Planning in Modern Norway“(1959), which was widelrn Norway“(1959), which was widely acknowledged after its second edy acknowledged after its second edition in 1968, Haugen introduced anition in 1968, Haugen introduced and attempted to define the concept. d attempted to define the concept. Bente Bakmand(Bente Bakmand(http://www.immi.shttp://www.immi.se/intercultural/nr3/bakmand.htme/intercultural/nr3/bakmand.htm))

Introduction 2Introduction 2 How language planning is defined 1How language planning is defined 11.1. the development of policies or programs designed to the development of policies or programs designed to

direct or change language use, as through the establidirect or change language use, as through the establishment of an official language, the standardization or shment of an official language, the standardization or modernization of a language, or the development or modernization of a language, or the development or alteration of a writing system.alteration of a writing system. http://dictionary.reference.com/brhttp://dictionary.reference.com/browse/language+planning5owse/language+planning5

2.2. The numerous attempts that have been made to chanThe numerous attempts that have been made to change a particular variety of a language, or a particular lage a particular variety of a language, or a particular language, or some aspect of how either of these functinguage, or some aspect of how either of these functions in society. Such changes are usually described aons in society. Such changes are usually described as instances of s instances of language planning. language planning. Ronald (1998, p. 34Ronald (1998, p. 347)7)

3.3. ““Language planning is a government authorized, lonLanguage planning is a government authorized, longterm, sustained, and conscious effort to alter a langgterm, sustained, and conscious effort to alter a language’s function in a society for the purpose of solvinuage’s function in a society for the purpose of solving communication problems” Weinstein(1980, p. 56)g communication problems” Weinstein(1980, p. 56)

Introduction 2Introduction 2 How language planning is dHow language planning is d

efined 2efined 24. Language planning involves the creat4. Language planning involves the creat

ion and implementation of an official ion and implementation of an official policy about how the languages and lpolicy about how the languages and linguistic varieties of a country are to inguistic varieties of a country are to be used. David Crystal (1996, p. 366) be used. David Crystal (1996, p. 366)

5. 5. 国家或社会团体为了对语言进行管理而国家或社会团体为了对语言进行管理而进行的各种工作的统称。所谓规划或管进行的各种工作的统称。所谓规划或管理是个广义的概念，包括语言的选择和理是个广义的概念，包括语言的选择和规范化、文字的创制和改革等方面的具规范化、文字的创制和改革等方面的具体问题。体问题。（（http://baike.baidu.com/view/677104.htmhttp://baike.baidu.com/view/677104.htm））

Introduction 2Introduction 2 Two examplesTwo examples

1.1. The founding of the Acadamie FraThe founding of the Acadamie Francaise in 1634. ncaise in 1634.

For more information, visit For more information, visit http://ehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%An.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_fran%C3%A7aise9mie_fran%C3%A7aise

1.1. The Ethiopian literacy campaign aThe Ethiopian literacy campaign around 1974 round 1974

For more information,visit For more information,visit http://whttp://www.mongabay.com/history/ethiopiww.mongabay.com/history/ethiopia/ethiopia-literacy.htmla/ethiopia-literacy.html

The reasons for language planningThe reasons for language planning• Different social groups wish to maintain their lingDifferent social groups wish to maintain their ling

uistic identities and interests, and may actively auistic identities and interests, and may actively and often violently campaign for recognition.nd often violently campaign for recognition.

• Changes increasing, countries becoming aware, Changes increasing, countries becoming aware, it is not possible to rely on the slow course of natit is not possible to rely on the slow course of natural liguistic evolution to resolve the pressures aural liguistic evolution to resolve the pressures and conflicts that arise.nd conflicts that arise.

• Therefore, many governments try to solve their pTherefore, many governments try to solve their problems by engaging in conscious, principled ‘lanroblems by engaging in conscious, principled ‘language planning’, or ‘linguistic engineering’guage planning’, or ‘linguistic engineering’

Introduction 3Introduction 3

Introduction 4Introduction 4 Language planning is carried out by:Language planning is carried out by:• government departments and agencigovernment departments and agenci

es es • academiesacademies• committeescommittees• popular societiespopular societies• IndividualsIndividuals Historical, political, economic, religioHistorical, political, economic, religio

us, educational, judicial, and social fus, educational, judicial, and social factors all have to be disentangledactors all have to be disentangled

(David Crystal,(David Crystal, 1997, p. 367)1997, p. 367)

Some Basic Issues 1Some Basic Issues 1 Language planning is an attempt to Language planning is an attempt to

interfere deliberately with a languainterfere deliberately with a language or one of its varieties which may ge or one of its varieties which may focus on either its focus on either its statusstatus with regar with regard to some other language or varietd to some other language or variety or its y or its internal conditioninternal condition with a vie with a view to changing that condition, or on w to changing that condition, or on both of these since they are not muboth of these since they are not mutually exclusive. The first focus restually exclusive. The first focus results in ults in status planning status planning (( 地位规划地位规划 ), ), tthe second corpus planning (he second corpus planning ( 本体规本体规划划 ))

Some Basic Issues 2 Some Basic Issues 2 status planningstatus planning; ; corpus planningcorpus planning

Status planning changes the function of a languaStatus planning changes the function of a language or a variety of a language and the rights of thge or a variety of a language and the rights of those who use it. Ronald Wardhaugh(1998, p. 34ose who use it. Ronald Wardhaugh(1998, p. 347)7)

According to David Crystal (1997, p. 366), changAccording to David Crystal (1997, p. 366), changes, in status planning, are proposed in the way a es, in status planning, are proposed in the way a language/variety is to be used in society —permilanguage/variety is to be used in society —permitted for the first time in law courts or in official putted for the first time in law courts or in official publications.blications.


Corpus planning seeks to develop a variety of a laCorpus planning seeks to develop a variety of a language or a language, usually to standardize it, thnguage or a language, usually to standardize it, that is, to provide it with the means for serving every at is, to provide it with the means for serving every possible language function in society. possible language function in society.

According to David Crystal (1997, p. 366), changes,According to David Crystal (1997, p. 366), changes, in corpus planning, are introduced into the stuctur in corpus planning, are introduced into the stucture of a language/variety — spelling, pronunciation, e of a language/variety — spelling, pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary.grammar, or vocabulary.


The corpus/status dichotomy emphasizes the dual nature of lThe corpus/status dichotomy emphasizes the dual nature of language planning, that is, its concern with both the linguistianguage planning, that is, its concern with both the linguistic and social aspects of language. c and social aspects of language.

““Corpus planning” refers to all actions aiming at modifying “thCorpus planning” refers to all actions aiming at modifying “the nature of the language itself”,e nature of the language itself”,

““Status planning” is concerned with whether the social status Status planning” is concerned with whether the social status of language should be lowered or raised. of language should be lowered or raised.

However, the two cannot be separated from each other. And lHowever, the two cannot be separated from each other. And language planning can never be corpus-oriented or status-oanguage planning can never be corpus-oriented or status-oriented exclusively. riented exclusively.

Florian Coulmas(1998, P. 448)Florian Coulmas(1998, P. 448)

Some Basic Issues 3Some Basic Issues 3 According to Kenneth Ives,According to Kenneth Ives, there is a tthere is a t

hird kind—hird kind— acquisition planning. acquisition planning.

Refers to organized efforts to promote Refers to organized efforts to promote the learning of a language. the learning of a language. ((http://www.spellingsociety.org/journalhttp://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j12/planning.phps/j12/planning.php))

Kenneth Ives, a retired sociologist anKenneth Ives, a retired sociologist and social worker. He is author of d social worker. He is author of WritteWritten Dialects N Spelling Reforms: Historn Dialects N Spelling Reforms: History N Alternativesy N Alternatives (1979) and of two arti (1979) and of two articles on studies of acceptability of spelcles on studies of acceptability of spelling reformsling reforms

Some Basic Issues 4Some Basic Issues 4

1.1. linguistic assimilation, linguistic assimilation,

2.2. linguistic pluralism,linguistic pluralism,

3.3. vernacularizaiton,vernacularizaiton,

4.4. internationalisminternationalism

Cobarrubias(1983)has described four tyCobarrubias(1983)has described four typical ideologies that may motivate actual decpical ideologies that may motivate actual decision-making in language planning in a particision-making in language planning in a particular society:ular society:

Some Basic Issues 5Some Basic Issues 5 linguistic assimilationlinguistic assimilation

the belief that everyone, regardless the belief that everyone, regardless of origin,should learn the dominant lof origin,should learn the dominant language of the society.anguage of the society.

examples: examples: • France applied this policy to variouFrance applied this policy to variou

s peoples within its borders.s peoples within its borders.• Russification in the former Soviet URussification in the former Soviet U

nionnion..


linguistic pluralismlinguistic pluralismthe recognition of more than one language, also tathe recognition of more than one language, also takes a variety of forms. It can be territorially or indivkes a variety of forms. It can be territorially or individually based or there may be some combination oidually based or there may be some combination of the two. It can be complete or partial, so that all of the two. It can be complete or partial, so that all or only some aspects of life can be conducted in mor only some aspects of life can be conducted in more than one language in society.re than one language in society.examples are countries like Belgium, Canada, Switexamples are countries like Belgium, Canada, Switzerlandzerland


VernacularizationVernacularization

the restoration or elaboration of the restoration or elaboration of an indigenous language and its an indigenous language and its adoption as an official language.adoption as an official language.

Examples:Examples:• Hebrew in Israel; Hebrew in Israel; • Tagalog(or Pilipino) in the PhilipTagalog(or Pilipino) in the Philip

pines(pines(visitvisit http://en.wikipedia.orhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_languageg/wiki/Filipino_language) )


InternationalismInternationalismthe adoption of a non-indigenous language the adoption of a non-indigenous language of wider communication either as an official lof wider communication either as an official language or for such purposes, as education anguage or for such purposes, as education or trade.or trade.Example:Example:English in Singapore, English in Singapore,

India, the PilippinesIndia, the Pilippines

Some Basic Issues 9Some Basic Issues 9 As a result of planning decisions,As a result of planning decisions,

1.1. A language can achieve one of a variety of statuA language can achieve one of a variety of statuses. A language may be recognized as the sole ses. A language may be recognized as the sole official anguage, as French is in France. Two or official anguage, as French is in France. Two or more languages may share official status in sommore languages may share official status in some countries, e.g., English and French in Canada e countries, e.g., English and French in Canada and Cameroon.and Cameroon.

2.2. A language may also A language may also

have official status but only have official status but only

on a regional basis, e.g., on a regional basis, e.g.,

German in BelgiumGerman in Belgium


Planning decisions will obviously Planning decisions will obviously play a very large role in determiniplay a very large role in determining what happens to any minority lng what happens to any minority language or languages in a countranguage or languages in a country. They can result in deliberate aty. They can result in deliberate attempts to eradicate such a langutempts to eradicate such a language, as with Franco’s attempt to eage, as with Franco’s attempt to eliminate Basque from Spain by baliminate Basque from Spain by banning it from public life.nning it from public life.

A variety of SituationsA variety of Situations we will look at a variety of linguistic situwe will look at a variety of linguistic situ

ations in the world to see some instancations in the world to see some instances of planning.es of planning.

1.1. France serves as a good example of a France serves as a good example of a country which has a single national lancountry which has a single national language and does little or nothing for any guage and does little or nothing for any other language. other language.

2.2. The bilingualism of Belgium. Today, FrThe bilingualism of Belgium. Today, French and Flemis(Dutch) co-exist in a sench and Flemis(Dutch) co-exist in a somewhat uneasy truce in Belgium. The omewhat uneasy truce in Belgium. The struggle between the French and the Flstruggle between the French and the Flemish has a long history.emish has a long history.

3.3. For more examples, see For more examples, see P P 353-358353-358

A variety of Situations 2A variety of Situations 2some further examplessome further examples

1.1. Papua New Guinea, a nation of 700 or more indiPapua New Guinea, a nation of 700 or more indigenous languages some, possibly more than a tgenous languages some, possibly more than a third, with fewer than 500 speakers,and this in a third, with fewer than 500 speakers,and this in a total population of approximately 4 million.otal population of approximately 4 million.

2.2. Singapore, an independent republic of nearly 3 Singapore, an independent republic of nearly 3 million people.million people.

3.3. Modern Norway, 4 million people.Modern Norway, 4 million people.4.4. Canada, 30 million people.Canada, 30 million people.5.5. ChinaChina See P 360-365See P 360-365

Some others

voices

Planning in Practice 1 Planning in Practice 1 ((David Crystal,David Crystal, 1997, p. 366)1997, p. 366)

Selecting the norm(Selecting the norm( 选择规范选择规范 ))• choose a single language as a norm for officchoose a single language as a norm for offic

ial, educational, and other purposes.ial, educational, and other purposes.• choose a particular variety of a language or tchoose a particular variety of a language or t

o construct a new variety, considering such fo construct a new variety, considering such factors as formality, social class, regional dialactors as formality, social class, regional dialect, and previous literary use.ect, and previous literary use.

Planning in Practice 2Planning in Practice 2 Codification(Codification( 规范法典化规范法典化 ))• The chosen language needs to be developed to The chosen language needs to be developed to

meet the demands placed upon it as a medium omeet the demands placed upon it as a medium of national or international communication.f national or international communication.

• If the language has previously existed only in spoIf the language has previously existed only in spoken form, or in an unusual writing system, an alpken form, or in an unusual writing system, an alphabet will have to be devised, along with rules of habet will have to be devised, along with rules of spelling and punctuation.spelling and punctuation.

• An early aim will be the codification of the pronunAn early aim will be the codification of the pronunciation, grammar, and vocab to provide a set of nciation, grammar, and vocab to provide a set of norms for standard use, especially orms for standard use, especially

if there is a great deal of local variation.if there is a great deal of local variation.

Planning in Practice 3Planning in Practice 3

Modernization(Modernization( 完善功能完善功能 ))• The vocab will need to be modernized to enable foreign maThe vocab will need to be modernized to enable foreign ma

terial to be translated consistently.terial to be translated consistently.• Principles will have to be agreed for the introduction of new Principles will have to be agreed for the introduction of new

terms; for example, should they be loan words or coinages terms; for example, should they be loan words or coinages based on native roots?based on native roots?

• New styles of discourse may need to be developed, for use New styles of discourse may need to be developed, for use on radio or in the press. Decisions will need to be made abon radio or in the press. Decisions will need to be made about new or uncertain usages, especially in technical contextout new or uncertain usages, especially in technical contexts.s.

Planning in Practice 4Planning in Practice 4 Implementation Implementation (( 推广使用推广使用 )) • The chosen standard will need to be officially implemeThe chosen standard will need to be officially impleme

nted by using it for government publications, in the mented by using it for government publications, in the media, and in schools.dia, and in schools.

• It will be viewed as the ‘best’ form of language in the sIt will be viewed as the ‘best’ form of language in the speech community, because it will be associated with epeech community, because it will be associated with educational progress and social status.ducational progress and social status.

• It will also provide the norm for literary style, and may It will also provide the norm for literary style, and may be associated with factors of a nationalistic, cultural, obe associated with factors of a nationalistic, cultural, or religious kind.r religious kind.

• In due course, it is likely to be promulgated as a norm tIn due course, it is likely to be promulgated as a norm through an official body, such as an academy, or throuhrough an official body, such as an academy, or through prescriptive grammars, dictionaries, and manuals ogh prescriptive grammars, dictionaries, and manuals of usage.f usage.

Chinese language planningChinese language planning ((David Crystal,David Crystal, 1997, p. 367)1997, p. 367)

Some of the most ambitious programmes of languagSome of the most ambitious programmes of language planning ever conceived have taken place in China e planning ever conceived have taken place in China since the 1950s, with hundreds of millions of people since the 1950s, with hundreds of millions of people affected.affected.

Two main developmentsTwo main developments

1.1. The provision of a romanized alphabet(pin-yin)The provision of a romanized alphabet(pin-yin)

2.2. The promotion of a common spoken language, The promotion of a common spoken language, putonputonghuaghua to provide a means of communication between to provide a means of communication between the various regional languages.the various regional languages.

An example, Datian county in Fujian provinceAn example, Datian county in Fujian province A pin-yin class pictureA pin-yin class picture

A pin-yin class inA pin-yin class in Ningwu County, Ningwu County,

Shanxi.Shanxi.

((David Crystal,David Crystal, 1997, p. 367)1997, p. 367)

ReferrencesReferrences1.1. David Crystal. (1997). David Crystal. (1997). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of LaThe Cambridge Encyclopedia of La

nguage. nguage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.2.2. Florian Coulmas. (1998). Florian Coulmas. (1998). The Handbook of SociolinguisticThe Handbook of Sociolinguistic

s.s. Hoboken: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Hoboken: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.3.3. Ronald Wardhrugh. (1998). Ronald Wardhrugh. (1998). An Introduction to SociolinguiAn Introduction to Sociolingui

stics.stics. Hoboken: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Hoboken: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.4.4. http://baike.baidu.com/view/677104.htmhttp://baike.baidu.com/view/677104.htm5.5. httphttp

://dictionary.reference.com/browse/language+planning5://dictionary.reference.com/browse/language+planning56.6. http://www.immi.se/intercultural/nr3/bakmand.htmhttp://www.immi.se/intercultural/nr3/bakmand.htm7.7. http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j12/planning.phphttp://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j12/planning.php8.8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Belgium

9.9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russification

RussificationRussification► an adoption of the an adoption of the Russian languageRussian language or some othe or some othe

r Russian attributes (whether voluntarily or not) by r Russian attributes (whether voluntarily or not) by non-non-RussianRussian communities. In a narrow sense, Rus communities. In a narrow sense, Russification is used to indicate the influence of the sification is used to indicate the influence of the Russian languageRussian language on on SlavicSlavic, , BalticBaltic and other lang and other languages, spoken in areas currently or formerly contruages, spoken in areas currently or formerly controlled by Russia, which led to the emerging of olled by Russia, which led to the emerging of russianismsrussianisms, , trasiankatrasianka and and surzhyksurzhyk. In a historical . In a historical sense, the term refers to both official and unofficial sense, the term refers to both official and unofficial policies of policies of Imperial RussiaImperial Russia and the and the Soviet UnionSoviet Union wi with respect to their national constituents and to th respect to their national constituents and to national minoritiesnational minorities in in RussiaRussia, aimed at Russian do, aimed at Russian domination.The major areas of Russification are politimination.The major areas of Russification are politics and culturecs and culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russification

Belgium’s linguistic pluralismBelgium’s linguistic pluralism Official languages:Official languages:DutchDutch, , FrenchFrench, and , and GermanGerman A number of non-official, minority languages and A number of non-official, minority languages and

dialects: dialects: Flemish, Walloon, Picard, Champenois, Lorrain, LFlemish, Walloon, Picard, Champenois, Lorrain, Low Dietsch, Luxembourgish, Yiddish ow Dietsch, Luxembourgish, Yiddish

Other minority and foreign languages:Other minority and foreign languages:Languages spoken by immigrants from recent decLanguages spoken by immigrants from recent decades and their descendants include ades and their descendants include ArabicArabic ( (Maghrebi ArabicMaghrebi Arabic), ), SpanishSpanish, , TurkishTurkish, Portuguese, It, Portuguese, Italian and Polish alian and Polish For more information, visit For more information, visit http://en.wikipedia.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Belgiumwiki/Languages_of_Belgium

Franco’s attempt to eliminate BasqueFranco’s attempt to eliminate Basque Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y BaFrancisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Ba

hamondehamonde (4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975), know (4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975), known simply as n simply as Francisco Franco,Francisco Franco, a Spanish dictator, military a Spanish dictator, military general and head of state of Spain from October 1936 (as general and head of state of Spain from October 1936 (as a unified nation from 1939 onwards), a unified nation from 1939 onwards),

Euzkadi was the autonomous Basque region straddling norEuzkadi was the autonomous Basque region straddling northern Spain and southern France. This autonomous Basquthern Spain and southern France. This autonomous Basque republic had been granted wartime self-rule by the Spanie republic had been granted wartime self-rule by the Spanish Republic in 1936, when the Republic was fighting againsh Republic in 1936, when the Republic was fighting against Franco’s fascist forces in the Spanish Civil War. Euzkadi,st Franco’s fascist forces in the Spanish Civil War. Euzkadi, which had its own language and customs, held out for nine which had its own language and customs, held out for nine months before Bilbao in the region fell to Franco in June of months before Bilbao in the region fell to Franco in June of 1937, and the Basque army surrendered in August of 1937. 1937, and the Basque army surrendered in August of 1937. About 7,000 Basques had been killed in the fighting, 6,000 About 7,000 Basques had been killed in the fighting, 6,000 were later executed by Franco, and 45,000 were imprisonewere later executed by Franco, and 45,000 were imprisoned. Approximately 150,000 went into exile for decades. Frad. Approximately 150,000 went into exile for decades. Franco subsequently tried to eliminate the Basque language (knco subsequently tried to eliminate the Basque language (known as Euskera) and customsnown as Euskera) and customs..

Education

Language planning