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Function
to form
mapping
Utterance
organization
L1 influence
Corrections
L2
processing
Prof Gregg Brekke - EDU 361
Noticing hypothesis
• Nothing is learned unless it is noticed, even
unconsciously. Importance of awareness and attention in L2 learning
Input processing
• Learners have difficulty focusing on word form and
meaning at the same time. Learners focus on
meaning first and ignore “grammar” information.
Reflect understanding of the English L2 system
1. She looking around.
2. She rans to escape.
3. Yesterday he play soccer.
4. Why you don’t like cheese?
5. The dog run fastly.
She looking around: Developmental. Simplification of the verb phrase by omitting the auxiliary.
Yesterday he play: Developmental. Simplification. No tense or number marker on the verb.
She rans to escape: Developmental. Overgeneralization of the 3rd person singular ‘s’ present marker to the past.
Why you don’t like…: Developmental. Learner is at Stage 3 of question development
The dog run fastly. Developmental.
Overgeneralization. Adverbs add –ly to an adjective.
Learners in uninstructed settings
• Nothing is learned unless it is noticed, even
unconsciously. Importance of awareness and attention in L2 learning
Input processing
• Learners have difficulty focusing on word form and
meaning at the same time. Learners focus on
meaning first and ignore “grammar” information.
Information Organization of IL structures
01
02
03
Nominal Utterance
OrganizationUse of nouns, pronouns,
adjectives
Very few verbs used
Charlie and girl accidentInfinite Utterance Organization- Basic
VarietyUse of uninflected verbs (No #, person, tense)
Use of prepositions
The blonde friend tell other woman about the son
Finite Utterance Organization Morphological “grammar” endings and words
he has finished the work
Klein & Perdue 1993
Function-Form mapping
Reference to the past
01
02
03
Contextual
Describe the
situation
Lexical (vocabulary words)
with time meanings
Morphological “grammar”
endings and words
Phase 1: Contextual
Learners with very limited language may simply
refer to events in the order in which they occurred
or mention a time or place to show that the event
occurred in the past. My son come and He work in restaurant.
January. It’s very cold.
Viet Nam. We work too hard.
Phase 2: Lexical (vocabulary words)
learners use a rich repertoire of adverbs
Many calendric (Sunday) and anaphoric adverbs
(after, before, then)
Some frequency (always) and durational (two
hours) adverbs.
After his bike fall down, his fruit then fall
down.
Phase 3: Morphological
Learners start to attach a grammatical
morpheme which shows that the verb is marked
for the past.The people worked in the fields
Even after they begin marking past tense on verbs,
however, learners may still make errors such as
the overgeneralization of the regular -ed endingShe rided her bicycle
Learners are more likely to mark past tense on some verbs than on others. Why?
Due to the ‘lexical aspect’ of different verbs (Bardovi-Harlig (2000). o Learners learn first to mark past tense when referring
to completed events (I broke the vase or My sister fixed it with glue) than when referring to states and activities which may last for extended periods without a clear end point (She seemed happy last week or My father belonged to a club).
L2 Morpheme Order
1
2
3
4
-ing (progressive): Girl watching picture
Plural –s: Boy give away two pens
Be copula: She is the one
Be Auxiliary: progressive He is going
a/the: Article: He steals a bread
Irregular past: The teacher took us there
Regular past –ed We crashed the car
3rd singular –s He takes a nap
Possessive -- ’s the bread shop’s owner
Hierarchy of processing skills
01
02
03
04
apple
walk
apples
walked
three + big + apples
slowly + walked
The three big apples + are ripe.
A big apple + is spoiled.
(N)
(V)
(N)
(V)
(NP)
(VP)
(NP + VP)
Hierarchy of Internal Clause reordering (S1 + S2)
01
02
03
04
That’s the man [whoran away].
That’s the truck [that I sold yesterday].
That’s the man [to whom I gave the letter].
That’s the book [that I told you about],
or [about which I told you]
Processability Theory- (Pienemann)
1. Developmental features or sequences in syntax and morphology are affected by how easy they are to process. L2 learners follow these pathways.
2. Distance among phrase elements, and across phrase and clause boundaries require increasingly complex processing
3. Cognitive load in working memory limits depth of processing. More advanced structures are accessed only after previous ones are automatized.
French speaker: The boy kiss her mother.
Spanish speaker: He no speak e-Spanish.
German speaker: Like you ice cream?
Arabic speaker: The boy that I saw him was running fast.
French speaker: The boy kiss her mother. (French possessive determiners agree with object possessed.)
Spanish speaker: He no speak e-Spanish. (Spanish has no initial consonant clusters [sp-].)
German speaker: Like you ice cream? (At Stage 4/5 of question formation, learner hypothesizes that full verbs can be inverted in questions.)
Arabic speaker: The boy that I saw him was running fast. (In relative clauses, Arabic does not delete the pronoun from its ‘original’ place.)
Cross-linguistic influence no longer referred to
as‘transfer’or‘interference’. Why?◦ Cross-linguistic influence can promote L2 development.
◦ Cross-linguistic influence can result in avoidance as well
as errors because learners are sensitive to degrees of
distance between L1 and L2.
◦ L2 can influence L1 (influence goes both ways).
L1 sometimes makes it difficult for learners to
notice something they’re saying is not a feature
of the L2 (e.g. adverb placement)
Doesn’t take into account learner strategies
such as avoidance
Has one single focus: errors. Thus does not
track changes in interlanguage that may reflect
progress.
Not like ‘closed doors’
Emergence of new form, then increasing
frequency of use
Progress to a higher stage can result in new
(different) errors (e.g. ‘He ran out the door’
followed by ‘He runned out the door.’
Developmental progress interacts with L1
influence
Teachers’ questions in classrooms (Long and
Sato, 1983)
Scaffolding and display and referential questions
(McCormick and Donato, 2000)
Open and closed questions (Dalton-Puffer, 2006)
Wait time (White and Lightbown, 1984; Long et
al., 1985)
Pienemann (1988) and his colleagues suggest that:Some aspects of language are best taught according to learners’ internal schedule (i.e. developmental features).
Other aspects of language can be taught at any time (i.e. variational features). Vocabulary!
Instruction cannot change the ‘natural’ developmental course. For some learners, it can speed up passage.
Important to assess learners’ development and teach what would naturally come next.
Advocates of this proposal suggest that:◦ Not everything has to be taught; lots of language can be
acquired naturally with sufficient exposure.
◦ Some aspects of language must be taught and may
need to be taught explicitly (e.g. when learners share the
same first language).
◦ Other aspects of language can be taught by helping
learners to notice certain features in the input and to
increase their awareness of form.
‘Get it right in the end’
◦ Strong evidence that form-focused instruction within the context of communicative and content-based language teaching is more effective in promoting L2 learning than instructional approaches that are limited to an exclusive emphasis on accuracy, comprehension, or interaction.
◦ Decisions about balancing form-focus and meaning-focus must take into account differences in learners’ characteristics (e.g. age, goals for learning, etc.).
It is not necessary (or desirable) to choose
between form-based and meaning-based
instruction. The challenge is to find the best
balance between these two orientations.
Many questions about L2 teaching remain to be
answered by classroom-based research on L2
learning.
30
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
S'-procedure
(EmbeddedS)
- - - - +
Sentence-
procedure
- simplified simplified inter-phrasal
information
exchange
inter-phrasal
information
exchange
Phrasal
procedure
(head)
- - phrasal
information
exchange
phrasal
information
exchange
phrasal
information
exchange
category
procedure
(lex. categ.)
- lexical
morphemes
lexical
morphemes
lexical
morphemes
lexical
morphemes
word/ lemma + + + + +
Table 1:Hypothetical hierarchy of processing procedures (Pienemann, 1998)
Subject
That’s the man [who ran away].
Direct object
That’s the truck [that I sold yesterday].
Indirect object
That’s the man [to whom I gave the letter].
Object of preposition
That’s the book [that I told you about].
Genitive
That’s the man [whose sister I know].
Object of comparison
He’s the only man [whom I am taller than].
Less accessible