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lecture 22 from a college level introduction to psychology course taught Fall 2011 by Brian J. Piper, Ph.D. ([email protected]) at Willamette University, prenatal & postnatal, Piaget
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1
Development I
Brian J. Piper, Ph.D.
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Goals
• Prenatal• Infancy• Childhood
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Developmental Psychology
• study of the relatively predictable changes (motor, cognitive, social, and emotional) in behavior with age
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Developmental Psychology
Issue Details
Nature/Nurture
How do genetic inheritance (our nature)
and experience (the nurture we receive)
influence our behavior?
Continuity/Stages
Is development a gradual, continuous
process or a sequence of separate stages?
Stability/Change
Do our early personality traits persist through life, or do we become
different persons as we age.
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Prenatal Development and the Newborn
How, over time, did we come to be who we are? From zygote to birth,
development progresses in an orderly, though fragile, sequence.
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Conception
A single sperm cell (male) penetrates the outer coating of the egg (female) and
fuses to form one fertilized cell.
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Prenatal Development
A zygote is a fertilized egg with 100 cells that become increasingly diverse. At
about 14 days the zygote (a) turns into an embryo (b).
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Prenatal Development
At 9 weeks, an embryo (c) turns into a fetus (d). Teratogens are chemicals or viruses that can enter the placenta and harm the
developing fetus.
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Placenta
• The placenta forms the interface between the mother and fetus
• Old View: no chemicals can pass the placenta• New View: anything that can cross the blood brain
barrier can also cross the placenta
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Thalidomide
• Used to treat morning sickness• Administered to 20,000 women in 1950s
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
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Mouse Research (GD7)
Alcohol - Alcohol +
Godin, E.A. et al. (2010). Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 34, 98–111.
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Adolescent Taste Preference Following Prenatal Alcohol
ExposureLong-Evans rat dams received a diet high in ethyl alcohol (EtOH) from GD 5-20.
Offspring were tested on their alcohol intake at postnatal day 30.
*
Youngentob & Glendinning (2009). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 5359-64.
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The Competent Newborn
Infants are born with reflexes that aid in survival.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gyVLD0hl0XY
Rooting Reflex: turning head toward anything that strokes cheek
Moro Reflex: sudden spreading of arms inresponse to sensation of being dropped
Palmer Grasp Reflex: closing of hand
Infancy and Childhood Physical Development Cognitive Development Social Development
Infancy and Childhood
Infancy and childhood span from birth to the teenage years. During these years,
the individual grows physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally.
Stage Span
Infancy Newborn to toddler
Childhood Toddler to teenager
Physical Development
Infants’ psychological development depends on their biological development. To understand the emergence of motor skills and memory, we must understand
the developing brain.
Developing Brain
At birth, most brain cells are present. After birth, the neural networks multiply
resulting in increased physical and mental abilities.
Maturation
The development of the brain unfolds based on genetic instructions, causing various bodily and mental functions to occur in sequence— standing before
walking, babbling before talking—this is called maturation.
Maturation sets the basic course of development, while experience adjusts it.
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Back to Sleep
The causes of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)are not well understood but may involve an immaturebrainstem.
The Back to Sleep educational program was instituted with the hope of reducing SIDS.
prone: laying on stomachsupine: laying on back
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Motor Development
First, infants begin to roll over. Next, they sit unsupported, crawl, and finally walk. This sequence if consistent across
human cultures.Milestone Age (months)
Sitting unsupported 6
Crawling 8
Walking 12
Running 15
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Auditory Perception• 1 and 4 month old infants are capable of
responding to speech
Eimas et al. (1971). Science, 171, 303-306.
Maturation and Infant Memory
The capacity and duration of Long-Term Memory shows pronounced
improvements during the first two-years.
Infants of different ages came to the lab and played with toys (e.g. Make the monkey jump. This event consisted of a toy monkey and a blue teeter-totter. The infant placed the monkey on one end of the teeter-totter (Step 1) and pushed down on the opposite end (Step 2). This caused the monkey to “jump” into the air..
Later, they were given props and asked to recreate what happened earlier..
Bauer (2007). Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 142-146.
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Jean Piaget • Prolific Swiss developmental & cognitive
psychologist (50+ books, 500+ papers). • Eminence (20th century): 2nd!• He noticed patterns in child errors while
completing intelligence tests.• Studied his own 3 children (Jacqueline, Lucienne, and Laurent).
1896-1980
Schemas
Schemas are mental molds into which we pour our experiences.
Example: living things move
Assimilation and Accommodation
The process of assimilation involves incorporating new
experiences into our current
understanding (schema). The
process of adjusting a schema and
modifying it is called accommodation. Jean Piaget with a subject
Bill A
nd
erso
n/ P
hoto
Rese
arch
ers, In
c.
Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget believed that the driving force behind intellectual development is our
biological development amidst experiences with the environment. Our cognitive development is shaped by the
errors we make.
Deloache et al. (1987). Science, 304, 1027-1029.Quick Time Videos MPG 1 & 2
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Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Stages
Age Stage Description
0-2 Sensorimotor senses
2-7 Preoperational intuition
7-11 Concrete Operational beginning logic
12+ Formal Operational abstract logic
Sensorimotor Stage
In the sensorimotor stage, babies take in the world by looking, hearing, touching,
mouthing, and grasping. Children younger than 6 months of age do not grasp object permanence, i.e., objects
that are out of sight are also out of mind.
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Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms
Piaget believed children in the sensorimotor stage could not think —they
do not have any abstract concepts or ideas.
However, recent research shows that infants in the sensorimotor stage can
think and count. 1. Children understand the basic laws of
physics. They are amazed at how a ball can stop in midair or disappear.
Two min:http://www.pbs.org/parents/sid/blogs/teachers/archives/2010/10/babies-physics-uncovering-the-impressive-knowledge-of-infants.html
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Sensorimotor Criticism
Possible Impossible
Sensorimotor Stage: Criticisms
2. Infants can also “count”. Five-month olds stared longer at the wrong number of objects than the right ones.
Wynn (1992). Nature, 358, 749-759.
Preoperational Stage
Piaget suggested that from 2 years old to about 7 years old, children are in the preoperational stage—too young to
perform mental operations.
On
tario
Scie
nce
Cen
ter
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Conservation of Volume Test
• Age 5.5 (wrong): “Daddy, why did you ask such an easy question? Everyone could see that there was more water in that glass!”
• Age 6.5 (wrong): “Daddy, I don’t know … Why did you ask such a hard question!”
• Age 7.5 (correct): “Both glasses have the same amount of water, of course! Why? Is this some sort of trick question?
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Conservation of Number Test
• Which has more, top or bottom row?
Preoperational Stage: Criticism 1
Children as young as 3 years of age are able to use mental operations. When shown a model of a toy dog’s hiding place behind the couch, 2½-year-olds could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but the 3-year-olds did.
Representation Reality
DeLoache (1987). Science, 238, 1556-1557.A 3 year-old is shown a small room where a stuffed toy is hidden. Child is able to find the stuffed animal in the larger room.
39
Preoperational Criticism 2
• Even young children can show conservation of number when the question is asked differently.
• Which has more?• X X X• X X X
Egocentrism
Piaget concluded that preschool children are egocentric. They cannot perceive things from another’s point of view.
When asked to show her picture to mommy, 2-year-old Gabriella holds the picture facing her own eyes, believing that her mother can see it through her
eyes.
Hurt child example.
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Sense of Self-Rouge Test
• Rouge is placed on infants nose• Infant is placed in front of mirror• Do they?
– Touch mirror (no self-recognition)– Touch nose (self-recognition), usually 1.5 yrs
Rouge (Mark) Test (3:50 – end):http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vJFo3trMuD8
Theory of Mind
Preschoolers, although still
egocentric, develop the ability to understand
another’s mental state when they begin forming a theory of mind.
The problem on the right probes such ability in children. Sally-Anne False Belief Test4 min Video: Autism
http://www.thetransporters.com/researchvid.html
Concrete Operational Stage
In concrete operational stage, given concrete materials, 7-year-olds grasp
conservation problems and mentally pour liquids back and forth into glasses of
different shapes conserving their quantities.
Children in this stage are also able to transform mathematical functions. So, if 4 + 8 = 12, then a transformation, 12 – 4
= 8, is also easily doable.
Formal Operational Stage
Around age 12, our reasoning ability expands from concrete thinking to abstract thinking. We can now use symbols and imagined realities to
systematically reason. Piaget called this formal operational thinking.
Criticism: Formal Operational Stage
Rudiments of such thinking begin earlier (age 7) than what Piaget suggested, since 7-year-olds can solve the problem below
(Suppes, 1982).
If John is in school, Mary is in school. John is in school. What can you say about
Mary?
Summary: Piaget’s Theory
47
What stage is this student?
48
Egg Comparison
• What weights more, a 1 day or a 20 day old chicken egg?
• What answers are possible? • How would each answer be indicative of a
specific Piagetian stage?
Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory
Piaget’s stage theory has been influential globally, validating a number of ideas
regarding growth and cognitive development in many cultures and
societies. However, today’s researchers believe the following:
1. Development is a continuous process.2. Children express their mental abilities
and operations at an earlier age.
Social Development
Stranger anxiety is the fear of strangers that develops at around 8 months. This is the age at which infants form schemas for
familiar faces and cannot assimilate a new face.
© C
hristin
a K
en
ned
y/ Ph
oto
Ed
it
Origins of Attachment
Harlow (1971) showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact and
not because of nourishment.
3 min:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hsA5Sec6dAI
1905-1981
Origins of Attachment
Like bodily contact, familiarity is another factor that causes attachment. In some
animals (goslings), imprinting is the cause of attachment.
Ala
stair M
iller
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Measuring Attachment
• Ainsworth Strange Situation– Child + Mom in novel environment– Stranger enters– Mom leaves– Mom returns, stranger leaves– Mom leaves child alone– Mom returns
Video (4 min):http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zWsyIVVvDdw&feature=related
1913-1999
Attachment Differences
Placed in a strange situation, 60% of children express secure attachment, i.e., they explore their environment happily in the presence of their mothers. When their
mother leave, they show distress.
The other 30% show insecure attachment. These children cling to their mothers or caregivers and are less likely
to explore the environment.
Secure Attachment
Relaxed and attentive caregiving becomes the backbone of secure
attachment.
Separation Anxiety
Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age, regardless of whether the children
are home or sent to day care.
Deprivation of Attachment
What happens when circumstances prevent a child from forming
attachments?
In such circumstances children become:
1. Withdrawn2. Frightened
3. Unable to develop speech
Prolonged Deprivation
If parental or caregiving support is deprived for an extended period of time,
children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems.
Child-Rearing Practices
Practice Description
AuthoritarianParents impose rules and
expect obedience.
Permissive Parents submit to children’s demands.
Authoritative Parents are demanding but responsive to their children.
Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parenting correlates with social competence — other factors like
common genes may lead to an easy-going temperament and may invoke an
authoritative parenting style.
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Alternative View: Do parents matter?
• Judith Harris: The Nurture Assumption• Accent example• Peers
1938-
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Summary
• Jean Piaget: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operations
• Tests:– Object permanence– Conservation of volume– Rouge Test
• Limitations of Piaget