+

An Introduction to Qualitative ResearchFor Teaching in Senior High School

presented by Jean Lee C. Patindol, 12/10/16

+Qualitative Research

An APPROACH to research that “emphasizes the qualities of entities, processes and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount, intensity or frequency” (Denzin and Lincoln, 2008) Quality refers to a thing’s essence or ambiance

Refers to the meanings, concepts, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols and description of things (Berg, 2007) The research questions often stress how social experience

is created and given meaning

+How We Make Sense of the World

Numbers

Personal

Experiences

+3 Research Approaches

Qualitative “Words, not numbers” Usually involves a

philosophical stance that human knowledge is, to some extent, contextualised or local.

Focus on interpretation by researcher

Systematically arranging and presenting information to search for meaning in data collected

Makes less use of mathematical techniques.

But some form of counting is almost always involved in qualitative analysis.

Quantitative Concepts are assigned

numerical values Collects a small amount of

data from a large number of people

Employs statistics or other mathematical operations to analyse data

Allows generalisation to wider population

+Three Research Approaches

Mixed Methods (core characteristics) Do you have a quantitative database? (close-ended) Do you have a qualitative database? (open-ended) Do you plan on bringing 2 databases together? (integration)

What design and procedures will you use? (methodology)

+Strengths of Quantitative Research It can deal with large numbers of cases It is capable of examining complex patterns of

interactions between variables It can make possible the verification of the presence of

cause and effect relationships between variables

+Weaknesses of Quantitative Research Lack of in-depth information Ignores individual perspectives and experiences Limited with topics we know little about Can be built on pre-existing biases of the

researcher The case of questionnaires:

Language used Ordering of questions Forced response formats; what if ‘it depends…’? Missing data Sampling issues Response rates Lies, lies and damn statistics; torturing your data until it

confesses

+Strengths of Qualitative Research

Research done in natural settingsEmphasis on informant interpretations

and meaningsSeek deep understanding of informant’s

world “Thick Description” (Clifford Geertz)

Humanising research process by raising the role of the researched

High levels of flexibility in research process

+Weaknesses of Qualitative Research Problems of reliability - The difficulty of replicating findings

“Subjectivity” of nature of data collection and analysis Observations may be selectively reported making it

impossible to gauge the extent to which they are typical

Risk of collecting meaningless and useless information from participants.

Problems of objectivity vs detachment (particularly in participant observation but also applies to other methods)

Problems of ethics: Entering the personal world of the participant

Very time consuming

+When to Use a Mixed Methods Approach A purely quantitative approach or a purely qualitative

approach is insufficient to fully understand the problem We need to explore before we administer instruments We need to explain our statistical results by talking to

people We need to see if our quantitative results and our

qualitative results match We need to enhance our experiments by talking with people We need to develop new instruments by gathering

qualitative data

+Which Approach to Use?

Choose your approach and methods based on your research problem.

+Five Common Designs in Qualitative Research

+1. Narrative Research

Narrative research: begins with the experiences as expressed in lived and told stories of individuals

Can take the form of biographical studies, life histories or oral histories.

Collecting stories and “re-storying” them

+Example abstract

In my research, which has involved collecting womens accounts of becoming mothers, I am seeking to understand how women make sense of events throughout the process of child bearing, constructing these events into episodes, and thereby (apparently) maintaining unity within their lives

Miller, T. (2000). Losing the plot: narrative construction and longitudinal childbirth research. Qualitative Health Research, 10, 309-323.

+2. Phenomenological research Describes the meaning for several individuals of their

lived experience of a certain phenomena. Can center around basic broad questions: “what have

you experienced in terms of the phenomena?” and “what contexts have influenced your experience of the phenomena?”

“to determine what an experience means for the persons who have had the experience and are able to provide a comprehensive description of it. From the individual descriptions, general or universal meanings are derived, in other words, the essences of structures of the experience.” (Moustakas, 1994)

+Example abstract

Given the intricacies of power and gender in the academy, what are doctoral advisement relationships between women advisors and women advisees really like?

Heinrich, K. T. (1995). Doctoral advisement relationships between women. Journal of Higher Education. 66, pp. 447-469.

+3. Grounded theory research

Employed in situations where it is perceived as necessary to go beyond description and generate theory.

The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory that relates to a particular situation. If little is known about a topic, grounded theories especially useful.

Don’t do a literature review in the beginning Use of the constant comparative method Can lead to follow up quantitative research

+Example abstract

The primary purpose of this article is to present a grounded theory of academic change that is based on research based by two major research questions: What are the major sources of academic change? What are the major processes through which academic change occurs?

Conrad, C.F. (1978). A grounded theory of academic change. Sociology of Education, 51, 101-112.

+4. Ethnographic research

This kind of research focuses on an entire cultural group: describes their shared patterns of values, behavior, language and culture…

Field work as method of data collection.

+Example abstract

This article examines how the work and the talk of stadium employees reinforce certain meanings of baseball in society, and it reveals how this work and talk create and maintain ballpark culture

Trujillo, N. (1992). Interpreting (the work and talk of) baseball. Western Journal of Communication, 56, 350-371.

+5. Case study research

This kind of research involves the study of an issue explored through one or two cases within a setting or context.

A case study is an exploration of a “bounded system” or a case (or multiple cases) over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in context.

The context of the case involves situating the case within its setting. which may be physical, social, historical and/or economic.

+Example abstract

The purpose of this study was to take a look into education through the eyes of three teachers who are facing their final year as professional educators. The overarching goal was to determine how they have seen children, teachers, administration, policy, and testing change across the thirty year span of their work as teachers in Texas’ public schools. Through their comments they give a considerable amount of insight into the transformation education has experienced in the last three decades. But unexpectedly, they reveal as much about our changing society than they do education itself.

Project submitted in EDCI 690, Summer 2005, Texas A&M University.

+References Center for Teaching, Research and Learning, Research Support

Group at the Social Science Research Lab.,American University. (n.d.) “Qualitative research introduction.” http://www.american.edu/provost/ctrl/researchsupportgroup.cfm

Creswell, J. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dodge,B. “Qualitative research: The 5 traditions”. Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University. http://phhp.ufl.edu/~bdodge/

Pini, Barbara. (n.d.) “An introduction to qualitative research”. John Curtin Institute for Public Policy, Curtin University of Techonology.

Viruru, Radhika. (n.d.) “An introduction to qualitative research”. Department of Psychological Sciences, Quatar University

+Ethics in qualitative research

+Principles of Research Involving Human Subjects1. Respect for persons

treating others as autonomous agents having rights and freedom not a means to an end

free, voluntary and informed consent privacy and confidentiality2. Beneficence

research should be for the good of the subject either directly or indirectly through benefiting society

possible benefits are maximised and risks minimised impasse often develops between social good and individual

rights3. Justice

benefits and harms are to be distributed fairly vulnerable groups such as cognitively impaired and mentally ill,

their above average rates of institutionalisation and their dependency on others, have made them a convenient subject pool for research

who should participate in research poses significant challenges to policy formation

+Key Ethical Concepts

Protection of participant Informed consentUse of deceptionDebriefing participantsRight to withdrawPrivacy and confidentiality

+Protection of Participants1. Ensure minimal risk

must apply the cost-benefit-ratio risks unlikely to be greater than any encountered in

normal lifestyle must minimise negative outcomes

2. Strategies obtain advice from professionals screen vulnerable participants monitor unforeseen negative events debrief participants about research conduct long-term follow-ups have counselling or support available

+Informed ConsentRests on 4 elements

competence, information, understanding of that information and voluntariness

but… cannot be established in many important areas of research e.g. critically ill, demented, minors

Social contract rests on a mutually agreed contract must reveal all aspects that might influence the

decision to participateStrategies

inform of the general aims of the project associated costs and benefits consent forms

+Use of Deception Subjects are not given an opportunity to provide their informed

consent to participation before data collection. Examples include covert observation or subject knows they are

participating in research but not the nature of the research.

Problems deprives participant of the right to informed consent but… providing all information is likely to influence behavior and

therefore results should be avoided if possible

Guidelines governing deception in research: no more than minimal risk to subjects rights and welfare of the subjects will not be affected research cannot practicably be carried out without the

deception where appropriate, subjects are provided pertinent

information about the research after participation (debriefing)

+Debriefing Participants

Rationale traditional solution to deception problems participation considered an educational

experience

Strategies give all information needed and requested discuss their experience of the research provide contact details

+Right to Withdraw

Rights can withdraw consent without any penalty can request data be destroyed

Controversy use of captive audiences (e.g. students, military, prisoners,

employees) use of incentives

+Privacy & Confidentiality

Avoid the use of sensitive questions Do not record names if possible Code questionnaires Warn prior to data collection what identifying

information will be kept Explain confidentiality procedures

+Research ethics and the Internet

Dilemma based on three facts: Informed consent is not required for data to be collected from the

public domain (naturalistic observation). The internet is a public domain Many online communications (email; discussion groups, chat

rooms, newsgroups etc) cultivates an expectation of privacy The ease and attractiveness of Internet research renders the

medium vulnerable to misuse. Guidelines:

When subjects are recruited online, need secure server, secure protection of information during the study and removal of the records upon study completion

When using data from online discussion groups, removal of any references to identity, web site or group, location and time of post is necessary for confidentiality

+Research with vulnerable populations – An EXTENSIVE methodological literature exists

on undertaking research with specific populations and the ethics and practice of research with these populations. For example:

Indigenous peopleYouthPeople with disabilitiesMigrantsThe aged

+“I want to understand the world from your point of view. I want to understand the meaning of your experience, to walk in your shoes, to feel things as you feel them, to explain things as you explain them. Will you become my teacher and help me understand?”

- James P. Spradley