Individual Differencesand

Computer – Assisted Language Learning (CALL)

By,Ratnatyara Wahyuhadi

Rofiqo MujahidahTri Yanuarsih

Theories of second language learning Individual differences

Models with independent learner variables- The “Good Language Learner’ Model- Monitor theory- Brown & Fraser’s Framework- Levin’s Schematic Model

Models with Interdependent learner variables- Gardner’s Educational Model- Skehan’s Model of influences on language learning- Spolsky’s Model of second language learning

Models of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

The ‘Good Language-Learner’ Model Proposed by Naiman, Frohlich, Todesco and Stern

(1978)

MaterialsSyllabusMethodologyResources

Unconscious processes-Generalization-Transfer-SimplificationConscious processes- strategies

AgeIntelligenceMotivationAttitudePersonalityCognitive Style

EFL/ESLOpportunities for useSocial Milieu

Proficiency-Listening- Speaking- Reading- WritingErrorsInter languageAffective reason

TEACHING

THE LEARNERS

THE CONTEXT

LEARNINGOUTCOME

Proposed by : - Krashen (1978,1981,1982, 1985)

- Dulay, Burt & Krashen (1982)- Krashen & Terrel (1983)

Monitor Theory

INPUT

AffectiveFilter

CognitiveOrganizers

MONITOR

OUTPUT

Affective Filter :- Attitude- Motivation- Self-confidence- Anxiety

1979

Brown & Fraser’s Framework

Situation

Scene Participants

Setting(bystanders,local, time)

Purpose(buying, lecturing,playing a game)

Individuals RelationshipBetweenIndividuals(shared Knowledge,power)

IndividualQua individual(personality, attitude)

Individual asmember of asocial category(class, ethnicity)

Levin (1977)

Levin’s Schematic Model

2 major stages :- diagnostic- prescriptive

Focused on 2 variables :- input (traits, abilities, prerequisites) - output

These models not only identify the independent influence of the individual-related variables and other variables but also consider that these variables influence each other and jointly create differences in learning outcomes.

Models of this type include:- Gardner’s educational model- Skehan’s model of influences on language

learning- Spolsky’s model of second language learning

Models with interdependent learner variables

The model encompasses three main aspects:- Cultural beliefs- Individual differences- Second Language Learning (SLA)/learning contexts

There are three points that can be inferred from Gardner’s model.- There should be a direct link between cultural beliefs and individual difference variables- Gardner highlights the importance of individual differences (e.g. intelligence, language aptitude, motivation, and situational anxiety) upon which his approach is primarily based.- There is a linkage between variables within the framework which, in turn jointly affect other variables.

Gardner’s Educational Model

Social MilieuIndividualDifferences Social Milieu Social Milieu

CulturalBelief

Intelligence

LanguageAptitude

Motivation

Situationalanxiety

FormalLanguageTraining

InformalLanguageTraining

Linguistic

NonLinguistic

Gardner’s (1979) schematic representation of the theoretical model

CulturalBelief

Integrativeness

Attitudestowards thelearningsituations

Motivation

formal

informal

Linguistic

Nonlinguistic

LanguageAptitude

Operational formulation of the socio-educational model (Gardner, 1985)

A modification of the ‘Good Language Learner (GLL)’ model developed by Naiman, et al, (1978)

There are two differences between the two models: 1. A new ‘opportunities for target language

use’ category has been added2. The sub-variables under the ‘classrooms and materials’ variable was proposed

Skehan’s Model of Influences on Language Learning

Spolsky based his model on a core of five features summarized as follows:- Combining in a single theory all aspects of second or foreign language learning which he described as ‘unabashed immodesty’.- A restriction to the specific domain of second language learning and a focus on individual differences.- ??- A spirit of eclecticism seems to underlie Spolsky’s model.- The model recognizes the importance and existence of ‘social context’ as an important domain affecting learning outcomes.

Spolsky’s model consists of two main clusters, i.e. ‘conditions of social contexts’ and ‘conditions of learners’.

Spolsky’s Model of Second Language Learning

ClassroomsAnd materials

MaterialsSyllabusMethodologyResources

Organization-Structuring-ExplicitivenessResponsiveness-Appropriateness of pacing-Individualization-Feedback provision

Social Context

Expectation of bilingualismRelationship to target language communityAttitudes to target language Social class

Opportunitiesfor target

language use

Access to NS-In class-Out of class

Opportunities for communication language useOpportunities for negotiation

The learner

IntelligenceAptitudeMotivationAttitudePersonalityCognitive style

Learning

Conscious strategies

Unconscious strategies

Out comes

ProficiencyErrorsFossilizationAffectiveoutcome

There are two points that can be noted from Spolsky’s model of language learning and its underlying features:

1. Spolsky’s model appears to be promising as a parameter for identifying variations in learner variables2. The second point relates to the fourth feature underlying Spolsky’s model. This feature of eclecticism clearly implies that his model can

be modified and adjusted according to learning conditions (contexts).

Social context

Age

Social context

Motivation

Personality Capabilities Previous Knowledge

Learning opportunities(formal or informal)

Linguistic and non-linguisticOutcomes for the learners

Leads to

Which appear in the learners as

Which joins with other personal characteristic such as

All of which explain the use the learner makes of the available

The interplay between learner and situation determining

From the review of these specific SLA models, there are two points that can be highlighted:

No matter what the model of SLA is, learner variables

are claimed to relate to learning outcomes

Most models posit learner variables as caused variables influencing the learning outcome.

NO MODELS VARIABLES

1 The ‘Good Language Learner’ Model

Learner (e.g; intelligence, aptitude, motivation, attitude, personality, cognitive style)Teaching (eg. Syllabus, materials, methodology, resources)The context (eg. EFL/ESL, opportunities for use, and social milieu)Learning (unconscious and conscious process)Outcome (proficiency, error, interlanguage, affective reactions)

2 ‘Monitor’ Model Affective Filter (learner variable) such as attitude, motivation, self-confidence, or anxiety)InputCognitive OrganizersOutput

3 Model Developed by Brown and Fraser

Scene (setting and purpose)Participant (individual and relationship between individuals)Language choice (outcomes)

4 Levin’s model Input (learner variables)Output

5 Gardner’s Model Social milieu (cultural beliefs)Individual Differences (intelligence, language aptitude, motivation, and situational anxiety)Second Language Acquisition Contexts (formal and informal training)Outcomes (linguistic and non-linguistic)

6 Spolsky’s Model Social Context (eg. Family, home, community, etc)Condition of learner (eg. Motivation, age, personality, capabilities, and previous knowledge)Learning opportunities (formal and informal)Outcomes (linguistic and non-linguistic)

7 Skehan’s Model Classrooms and Materials (eg. Syllabus, methodology, materials, teacher-student ratio, resources, organization, responsiveness)Social context (eg. Expectation of bilingualism, relation to target language, attitudes to target language, social class)Opportunities for target language use (eg. Access to NS, opportunities for communicative language use, opportunities for negotiation)The Learner (eg. Intelligence, aptitude, motivation, attitude, personality, cognitive style)Learning (conscious and unconscious)Outcomes (proficiency, errors, fossilization, affective outcomes)

Age Attitudes Motivation Intelligence Language aptitude Previous knowledge Familiarity with computers Interaction with native-speakers of English Language used for interaction with the community

Individual Differences

young children are better in the most crucial areas particularly in oral (communicative) proficiency, but adults’ rate of acquisition is faster than children, particularly in morphology and syntax.

Age

A student who has negative or positive attitude toward learning process will affect his/her interaction during the learning process.

Attitudes

Intrinsic Intrinsic motivation is one which comes from the

learners’ own persona.

ExtrinsicExtrinsic motivation is one which comes from out side and beyond individual.

Motivation

There is a positive correlation between intelligence and language learning achievement.

Intelligence

According to Carroll (1981:84) aptitude can be defined as :

a concept which corresponds to the notion that in approaching a particular learning task or program, the individual may be thought of as possessing some current state of capacity of learning that task if the individual is motivated, and has the

opportunity of doing so. The capacity is presumed to depend on some combination of more or less enduring characteristic of the individual.

Language Aptitude

In a foreign language learning context, previous language knowledge plays an important role in a further process of language learning, in terms of language learning achievement.

Previous knowledge

It is considered as a variable in a computer-mediated language learning environment.

It will help the students to access the knowledge.

Familiarity with computers

Can interaction with native speakers of the target language being learned enhance language learning achievement?

Interaction with native-speakers of English

Smith-Kreuzen (1988) : learners will interact using the target language.

Hartoyo : only in formal-teaching learning situations (classroom context). In informal situations (outside the classroom), Indonesian is likely to be used more than English.

Language used for interaction with the community

Despite the fact that not all studies on the relationship between individual-related variable and language learning achievement have revealed similar findings, the majority of studies indicates that these variables significantly affect language learning achievement. Furthermore, the review has repeatedly demonstrated that the variables do not operate in isolation. The are important though unclear interaction between them.

SUMMARY

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