Image of the City A review of the Book 3/16/2012

Shashikant Nishant Sharma B. Planning, SPA, Delhi

Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 2

Theory of Kelvin Lynch .................................................................................................................................. 3

Contents of the Book .................................................................................................................................... 3

Analysis: .................................................................................................................................................... 4

CHAPTER WISE DESCRIPTION ........................................................................................................................ 4

1. The Image of the Environment ............................................................................................................. 4

2. Three cities ............................................................................................................................................ 5

3. The city image and its elements ........................................................................................................... 6

4. City form................................................................................................................................................ 7

5. New scale .............................................................................................................................................. 9

Analysis of the Writing Style ......................................................................................................................... 9

Flow: ........................................................................................................................................................ 10

Focus: ...................................................................................................................................................... 10

Unity: ....................................................................................................................................................... 10

Illustrations ............................................................................................................................................. 11

Coherence: .............................................................................................................................................. 12

Creativity: ................................................................................................................................................ 12

Comprehensive but Compact: ................................................................................................................ 13

Reference to Relevant Details:................................................................................................................ 13

Lucid Style: .............................................................................................................................................. 13

Readable: ................................................................................................................................................ 14

Concrete: ................................................................................................................................................. 14

Concise: ................................................................................................................................................... 14

Correctness: ............................................................................................................................................ 15

Paragraphs .............................................................................................................................................. 15

Punctuations ........................................................................................................................................... 16

Abbreviations and Acronyms .................................................................................................................. 16

Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 16

THE IMAGE OF THE CITY

Author: Kevin Lynch

Introduction

Kevin Andrew Lynch (1918 Chicago, Illinois - 1984 Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts)

was an American urban planner and author.

Lynch studied at Yale University, Taliesin (studio) under Frank Lloyd Wright, Rensselaer

Polytechnic Institute, and received a Bachelor's degree in city planning from MIT in

1947. He worked in Greensboro, NC as an urban planner but was recruited to teach at

MIT by Lloyd Rodwin. He began lecturing at MIT the following year, became an assistant

professor in 1949, was tenured as an associate professor in 1955, and became a full

professor in 1963.

Lynch provided seminal contributions to the field of city planning through empirical

research on how individuals perceive and navigate the urban landscape. His books

explore the presence of time and history in the urban environment, how urban

environments affect children, and how to harness human perception of the physical

form of cities and regions as the conceptual basis for good urban design.

Lynch's most famous work, The Image of the City published in 1960 by MIT Press, is the

result of a five-year study on how users perceive and organize spatial information as

they navigate through cities. Using three disparate cities as examples (Boston, Jersey

City, and Los Angeles), Lynch reported that users understood their surroundings in

consistent and predictable ways, forming mental maps with five elements:

Paths, the streets, sidewalks, trails, and other channels in which people travel;

Edges, perceived boundaries such as walls, buildings, and shorelines;

Districts, relatively large sections of the city distinguished by some identity or

character;

Nodes, focal points, intersections or loci;

Landmarks, readily identifiable objects which serve as external reference points.

In the same book Lynch also coined the words "imageability" and "wayfinding". Image of

the City has had important and durable influence in the fields of urban planning and

environmental psychology.

This book is about the look of the cities, and whether this look is of any importance, and

whether it can be changed. The urban landscape has many roles, but is missed out to be

seen, remembered, and to delight in. Giving visual form to the city is a special and a new

kind of design problem.

To examine this new problem, the book looks at three American cities: Boston, Jersey

City and Los Angeles and thereby suggests a method and offers some first principles of

city design.

Theory of Kelvin Lynch

Lynch influenced the field of city planning through his work on the theory of city form,

and studies relating to human perceptions of the city, on the perception of the city

environment and its consequences for city design.

Kevin Lynch says "Looking at cities can give a special pleasure, however common place

the sight may be. Like a piece of architecture, the city is a construction in space, but of a

vast scale, . . . perceived only in the course of long spans of time . . . At every instant,

there is more than the eye can see, more than the ear can hear, a setting or view

waiting to be explored. Nothing is experienced by itself, but always in relation to its

surroundings, the sequences of events leading up to it, the memory of past experiences

. . . Every citizen has had long associations with some part of his city, and his image is

soaked in memories and meanings . . . “

Contents of the Book

1. The Image of the Environment

2. Three cities

3. The city Image and Its elements

4. City Form

5. A new Scale

Appendices

1. Some references to orientation

2. The Use of the methodology

3. Two examples of analysis

Analysis:

Pros:

The content of the book is very simple and attractive. In the table of content there is

only the list of title of the chapters of the book and nothing about the subtitles under

each chapter. So, the author has tried to keep the curiosity of readers under control.

Cons:

The content has no indication of the sub-content of the chapter as there are no

subtitles in the table of content. The reader will have to search book if he need

particular reference.

CHAPTER WISE DESCRIPTION

1. The Image of the Environment

Legibility - Here the visual quality of the American city is considered by studying the

mental image of that city held by its citizens. The concentration is on one particular

visual quality: the apparent clarity or “legibility” of the cityscape. To explain this it is

compared to the same printed page of the book saying, if it is legible, it can be grasped

visually as a related pattern of recognizable symbols.

Although legibility is not the only important property of a beautiful city; but is of

importance when environments at the urban scale of size, time and complexity is

considered.

Building the image - Environmental images are the result of a two –way process

between the observer and his environment. The image of a given reality may vary

significantly between different observers. There are formal types of image elements into

which we can conveniently divide the city image: path, landmark, edge, node and

district.

Structure and Identity – it says, an environmental image may be analyzed into three

components: identity, structure and meaning. All the three terms are defined then

which leads to the definition of Imageability as, the quality in a physical object which

gives it a high probability of evoking a strong image in any given observer.

Through these terms and related examples, the readers are asked to learn to see the

hidden forms in the vast cover of our cities. The conscious remolding of the large-scale

physical environment has been now possible. This problem is put in capsule definition of

architecture by Suzanne Langer:

“It is the environment made visible.”

2. Three cities

Analyses are done for the central areas of three American cities: Boston,

Massachusetts; Jersey City, New Jersey; and Los Angeles, California. Boston is unique in

character among American cities, being both vivid in form and full of locational

difficulties. Jersey City was chosen for its apparent formlessness, for what seemed, on

first observation, to be its extremely low order of Imageability. Los Angeles is a new city,

of an utterly different scale, and with a gridiron plan in its central area. In every case a

central area of approximately 2 ½ by 1 ½ miles was taken for study. In each of these

cities, two basic analyses were carried out:

1. A systematic field survey was made by a trained observer, who mapped the

presence of various elements, their visibility, their image strength or weakness, and

their connections, disconnections, and other interrelations. Also any special successes or

difficulties in the potential image structure were mapped.

2. A lengthy interview was held with a small sample of city residents to evoke their

own images of their physical environment. The interviews included requests

descriptions, locations, and sketches, and for performance of imaginary trips.

Distinct differences in the imageability of the three cities appeared. Certain features:

open space, vegetation, sense of motion on the paths, visual contrasts-seemed to be of

particular importance in the cityscape.

3. The city image and its elements

Here, it says a public image of any given city is the overlap of many individual images.

The contents of city images studied, which are referable to physical forms, are classified

into five types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. Each of these

elements has been defined then.

The author says, none of the element types isolated above exist in isolation in the real

case. Districts are structured with nodes, defined by edges, penetrated by paths and

sprinkled with landmarks. Elements regularly overlap and pierce one another. All three

cities have been discussed in relation to these elements.

Element interrelations - These elements are simply the raw material of the

environmental image at the city scale. They must be patterned together to provide a

satisfying form. Now the author suggests considering the interaction of pairs of unlike

elements. Such pairs may reinforce one another, resonate so that they enhance each

other’s power, or they may conflict and destroy themselves.

The shifting image – Rather than a single comprehensive image for the entire

environment, there seemed to be sets of images, which more or less overlapped and

interrelated. Images may differ not only by the scale of area involved, but by viewpoint,

time of day, or season.

Image quality – study of various individual images revealed certain other distinctions

between them. For example, images of an element differed between observers in terms

of their relative density, i.e., the extent to which they were packed with detail.

From this, one might infer that the images of greatest value are those which most

closely approach a strong total field: dense, rigid and vivid; which make use of all

element types and form characteristics without concentration; and which can be put

together either hierarchically or continuously, as occasion demands.

4. City form

In this chapter the author talks about what opportunity we have of forming our new

city world into an imageable landscape: visible, coherent and clear. The author says that

the city dweller requires a new attitude and a physical reshaping of his domain into

forms which entrance the eye, which organize themselves from level to level in time and

space, which can stand as symbols for urban life. The form must be somewhat

noncommittal, plastic to the purposes and perception of its citizens.

As an artificial world, the city should be so in the best sense: made by art, shaped for

human purposes. It is our ancient habit to adjust to our environment, to discriminate

and organize perceptually whatever is present to our senses. Survival dominance based

them on this sensuous adaptability, yet now we may go on to a new phase of this

interaction.

Designing the paths – To heighten the image ability of the urban environment is to

facilitate its visual identification and structuring. The elements isolated above – the

paths, edges, landmarks, nodes and regions – are the building blocks in the process of

making firm, differentiated structures at the urban scale. It says how important are the

paths, the network of habitual or potential lines of movement through the urban

complex by which the whole can be ordered by concentration of some spatial use or

activity along their margins, a characteristic spatial quality, a special texture of floor or

façade, a particular lighting pattern, a unique set of smells or sounds, a typical detail or

mode of planting.

These characters should be so applied as to give continuity to the path. If one or more of

these qualities is employed consistently along the line, then the path may be imagined

as a continuous, unified element. the author also suggests how a visual hierarchy and

scale can be given to line (path).he also says if the intersection (the point of connection

and decision for the man in motion) can be visualized clearly, if the intersection itself

makes a vivid image and if the joint of the two paths with respect to each other is clearly

expressed, then the observer can build a satisfactory structure.

Form qualities – The clues for urban design have been summarized under this topic as:

a. Singularity

b. Form simplicity

c. Continuity

d. Dominance

e. Clarity of joint

f. Directional differentiation

g. Visual scope

h. Motion awareness

i. Time series

j. Names and meanings

All of these qualities do not work in isolation. A region would be unmistakable which

had a simple form, a continuity of building type and use, which was singular in the city,

sharply bounded, clearly jointed to a neighboring region and visually concave.

The sense of the whole – in discussing design by element types there is a tendency to

skim over the interrelation of the parts into a whole. In such a whole, paths would

expose and prepare for the districts, and link together the various nodes. The nodes

would joint and mark off the paths, while the edges would bind off the districts, and the

boundaries would indicate their cores. It is the total orchestration of these units which

would knit together a dense and vivid image, and sustain it over areas of metropolitan

scale.

Metropolitan form – the increasing size of our metropolitan areas and the speed with

which we traverse them raise many new problems for perception.

Total imageability of an extensive area such as a metropolitan region would not mean

an equal intensity of image at every point. There would be dominant figures and more

extensive backgrounds, focal points and connective tissue. There are two techniques

suggested:

The entire region is organized as a static hierarchy.

Any given part of the region might focus on a minor node, these minor nodes

being satellite to a major node, while all the major nodes are arranged to

culminate in a single primary node for the region.

5. New scale

True enough, we need an environment which is not simply well organized, but poetic

and symbolic as well. It should speak of the individuals and their complex society.

But clarity of structure and vividness of identity are first steps to the development of

strong symbols. Such a sense of place in itself enhances every human activity that occurs

there and encourages the deposit of memory trace. In development of the image,

education in seeing will be quite as important as the reshaping of what is seen. If art and

audience grow together, then our cities will be a source of daily enjoyment to millions of

their inhabitants.

Analysis of the Writing Style

In this section of the report we will discuss about the pros and cons of the writing style

of a great author which will be like looking at the Sun with a lamp. Still, for the sake of

enhancing the knowledge base of the readers, I will try to do justice with my work.

Flow:

Pros: There is a definite flow of ideas in the book. The author starts with briefly the

people perceive their built environment and then we goes on to substantiate his

observations through case studies and arrive at some substantial information and

understanding of the elements which create the image of the city. Then in second last

chapter he suggest how we can use his finding in consciously deciding the image of the

city which is lacking in many modern cities and colonies which seems to be a row of

match boxes. And finally, he gives an account of his methodologies and techniques of

research.

Cons: I could not find any disruption in the flow of ideas in the book.

Focus:

Pros:

The book revolves around a central idea which is Image of the City. Each paragraph has

a clear main point or topic sentence. The chapterisation of the book has been done

keeping in view the requirement of the subject under discussion. He starts with the

general perception of the people and then introduces some terms and terminology to

illustrate his ideas in a better manner and make readers understand his point of views.

The author has taken up three case studies and then he finally concludes the book with

the study results identifying the elements of the image of a city.

Cons:

Book sometimes focuses more on some aspects. The author analyse the fact in-depth,

and this leads to shift in focus.

Unity:

Pros:

Every paragraph in a chapter is well related to the main idea. Each paragraph has tried

to stick to its main point. And elaborate the idea through illustrations. The reader will

feel the maturity of the author in keeping a unity in the diverse ideas he has put forward

to support his argument and analysis of the three cities.

Cons:

No comment.

Illustrations

Pros:

The book has good number of illustrations and maps which not only makes the book

bore readable but also adds to the comprehensibility of the concepts which author has

successfully presented in his book.

Cons:

There are more illustrations in the case studies.

Coherence:

Pros:

The book is organized logically, flow smoothly, and "stick" together. In other words,

everything in the writing makes sense to a reader and he feels the urge to read further

to complete the broader image that the author is trying to create. You will never feel

that a particular section of the book is worthless of little importance. This can be

achieved only through keeping coherence in the follow of ideas which I think author has

tried to do.

Cons:

The coherence in the second last chapter i. e., ’City Form’ is lacking to some extent.

Creativity:

Pros:

The book carries some of the personality, the individuality of its author. Kevil Lynch had

developed his own writing style. He starts with a hypothesis and then tests it through

the studies. You will find that he give very simple examples to substantiate his point of

view or augment the understanding of the readers.

Cons:

The introduction of new concepts and meaning to the existing words adds to the

confusion like imageability or way-finding to the average reader who may not have

comprehensive knowledge of the intricacies of the language. For example author

defines ‘Legibility’ as a term used to describe the ease with which people can

understand the layout of a place. By making questionnaire surveys, Lynch defined a

method of analyzing legibility based on five elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and

landmarks.

Comprehensive but Compact:

Pros:

The book is comprehensive in the sense that it has covered all the relevant facts and

analysis to the requirement of the subject matter. And at the same time you will find the

book is compact in the sense that it has not given unnecessary stuffs to mesmerize the

readers but let him think and interpret.

Cons:

In order to make the book comprehensive on the subject, author has sacrifices

compactness in some section of the book. Like when we study about ‘paths’.

Reference to Relevant Details:

Pros:

In effective writing, reference to relevant details is necessary. The annexure of the book

and the bibliography will tell the story in detail. The data used in the book has been well

referenced. The author has used superscripts to denote the references.

The Appendices to the book offers more practical application of the approaches

discussed in the main part of the work. Some References to Orientation are provided,

including discussion of the Types of Reference Systems, Formation of the Image, The

Role of Form, and the Disadvantages of Imageability. The Use of the Method expands

upon “The Method” as the Basis of Design, and proposes Directions for Future Research.

Cons:

Use of superscripts is now a day more out dated. It distracts the readers.

Lucid Style:

The book is presented in a lucid style. It has logical and systematic arrangement of

different parts. It is easily and clearly understandable by all those for whom it is meant.

It creates interest among readers because of its lucid and convincing style. Clear

thinking, objective tone and logical arrangement of thoughts have made the book

simple and lucid.

Readable:

Pros:

In terms of what makes for good writing, readability is about the basic ability of a reader

to make sense of what is written. And I think the author that done justice with the

readers. The use of grammar and simple English has made the book more readable to

the students of planning, architecture, design and urban affairs.

Cons:

Introduction of new terms and giving new meanings to the old words make an average

reader confused. For Example see, he give ‘District’ a new meaning by defining areas

with perceived internal homogeneity- "are medium-to-large sections of the city,

conceived of as having two-dimensional extent, which the observer mentally enters

‘inside of,’ and which are recognizable as having some common identifying character"

Concrete:

The author has put his ideas in a concrete manner through the examples of the three

cities. In order to put concrete facts and figures, the author has not deviated from

keeping the writing style in intimate manner and you can say this is an intensification of

the old “show, don’t tell” rule – powerful writing doesn’t just show, it shows in real-

world ways that are easily approachable. The book is real example of this style.

Concise:

Pros:

The author has written the paragraphs in a concise manner to make the interpretation

easy. He has kept he paragraphs relative smaller which adds to the breakup of ideas into

segments so that the readers don’t get confused or bored.

Cons:

Author cannot be concise in explaining a new concept. And we can find that when he

introduces concepts of imageability he breaks the norms of being concise.

Correctness:

The book is written in generally correct Standard English, with complete sentences, and

be relatively error-free.

Let’s look at a paragraph from book and analyse it.

Paragraphs

Pros:

Paragraphs are small and medium sized with ten to twenty lines. Most of the

paragraphs are limited to a particular topic. Spaces have been provided to distinguish

between the main paragraph and sub-paragraphs.

Cons:

Some explanatory paragraphs are large and readers feel intimidating.

Now let’s look at a paragraph.

An environmental image may be analyzed into three components: identity, structure,

and meaning. It is useful to abstract these for analysis, if it is remembered that in reality

they always appear together. A workable image requires first the identification of an

object, which implies its distinction from other things, its recognition as a separable

entity. This is called identity, not in the sense of equality with something else, but with

the meaning of individuality or oneness. Second, the image must include the spatial or

pattern relation of the object to the observer and to other objects. Finally, this object

must have some meaning for the observer, whether practical or emotional. Meaning is

also a relation, but quite a different one from spatial or pattern relation.

Thus, an image useful for making an exit requires the recognition of a door as a distinct

entity, of its spatial relation to the observer, and its meaning as a hole for getting out.

These are not truly separable. The visual recognition of a door is matted together with its

meaning as a door. It is possible, however, to analyze the door in terms of its identity of

form and clarity of position, considered as if they were prior to its meaning.

Here, you can see that it is a paragraph broken into two subparts to make the reading

and interpretation easy simultaneously. The paragraph starts with some enlisting the

components of an image and then subsequently; author illustrate the concept in a lucid

manner. He further re-enforces his views through an example of very common nature

but illustrated in a manner to suit the requirement.

Punctuations

There is good use of punctuations in the book.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Few or no use of abbreviations is a good quality of good writing.

Conclusions

Overall the book is well written and the author has applied most of the writing styles

and techniques in the good manner to produce a masterpiece in the field of the

planning literature.

Shashikant Nishant Sharma

SNSharma.SPA@gmail.com