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Human Cultures Chapter 16 Presentation
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CHAPTER 16
Religion
ANIMISMIs the belief that humans
share the world with a
population of extraordinary,
mostly invisible beings
E. B. Tylor (1871) – “Armchair Anthropologist” The first anthropologist to
define religion Demonstrated that members of
every society believe in the soul
ANIMISM IS THE SPIRITUAL BELIEF ORIGINATING FROM:
The experience of dreaming in which a phantom
version appears
Sleep, fainting, madness, and death all lead to the
notion of a world of spirits who enter and leave
human bodies at will
Other universal experiences that the soul explains:• Trances, visions, shadows, reflections, and death
The Ancient Egyptians had 2 souls, and so
do man West African cultures: 1 from the
mother’s ancestors and 1 from the father’s
The Dahomey say women have 3 souls and
men have 4: both sexes have an ancestor
soul, a personal soul, and a mawn soul. The
exclusively male 4th soul guides men to
positions of leadership in their households
and lineages
The Fang of Gabon have 7 souls: a brain
soul, a heart soul, a name soul, a life force
soul, a body soul, a shadow soul, and a
ghost soul
A LT H O U G H A N I M I S T I C B E L I E F S A R E U N I V E R S A L , E A C H C U LT U R E H A S I T S
O W N C O N C E P T O F T H E S O U L :
The J’varo of Ecuador have 3 souls: 1st
soul – the mekas – gives life to the body,
2nd soul – the arutam – has to be
captured thru drug-induced visions at a
sacred waterfall, 3rd soul – the musiak –
forms inside the head of a dying warrior
and tries to avenge his death (it is to
gain control over the musiak soul that
the J’varo cut off the fallen warrior’s
head, “shrink it”, bring it to the village,
where it is the focus of rituals designed
to transfer its powers to its captors
Animatism: is the belief in
diffuse impersonal power that
people can control under certain
conditions
Mana: is the possession of a
concentrated animatistic force
that gives certain objects,
animals, and people extraordinary
powers independent of the power
derived from souls and gods
ANIMATISM AND MANA
Robert Marett (1914)
ROBERT MARETT
Complained Tylor’s definition of religion was too
narrow
Introduced animatism to designate a supernatural
force that does not derive its effect from souls
Examples of objects that contain Mana:• An adze that makes intricate carvings• A fishhook that catches large fish• A club that kills many enemies• A horseshoe that brings good luck
Most cultures do not
distinguish between the
natural and supernatural
realm
The question of
whether a belief is
natural or supernatural
may have no emic
meaning
NATURAL & SUPERNATURAL
The Gururumba of the highlands of
western New Guinea, Phillip
Newman noted:• “they have a series of beliefs
postulating the existence of entities and forces we would call supernatural”
• Yet the contrast between natural and supernatural is not emically relevant to the Gururumba themselves
• They believe in using “lusu” to control some processes, a term denoting rituals relating to growth, curing, or the stimulation of strength
MAGIC & RELIGION
Sir James Frazer
“The Golden Bough” –
defined religion
For Frazer, the question of
whether a belief was
religious or not centered on
the extent to which the
participants felt they could
make an entity or force do
their bidding
Religion: refers to beliefs
and actions that are based on
the assumption that the
world is under the control of
supernatural forces that
humans must please
Magic: refers to a practice
intended to manipulate
supernatural forces to
achieve a specific result.
Magic is less spiritual and
less ethical than religion
If participants felt insecure and
humble and were inclined to
supplicate and request favors and
dispensations, their beliefs and
actions were essentially religious
If they though they were in control
of the entities and forces governing
events, felt no uncertainty about the
outcome, and experienced no need
for humble supplication, their beliefs
and practices were examples of
magic
Religion – emphasizes
explanation and is
practiced regularly
R E L I G I O N & M A G I C A R E B O T H S Y M B O L I C S Y S T E M S T H A T H E L P P E O P L E C O P E W I T H
E V E R Y D A Y L I F E
Magic – is a means of
manipulation that
targets specific,
immediate problems,
provides psychological
safety, allowing people
to perform tasks without
being distracted by fear
T H E O R G A N I Z AT I O N O F R E L I G I O U S B E L I E F S & P R A C T I C E S
Anthony Wallace (1966) –
distinguished 4 principal
varieties of religious cults:
(forms of organization of
religious doctrines &
activities)• Individualistic• Shamanistic• Communal• Ecclesiastical
INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTS
Do not make distinctions between specialists and laypeople, “do-it-yourself”
religion
In individualistic cults, all people are their own specialist
Common among Native North and South Americans, individuals acquire a
personal guardian spirit or supernatural protector—typically by means of a
visionary experience induced by fasting, self-inflicted torture, or hallucinogenic
drugs• Inuit: hunters must be vigilant to deal with wandering human & animal
souls, place spirits, Sedna (keeper of the sea animals), the Sun, the Moon, and the Spirit of the Air. Each hunter has his hunting song, a combination of chant, prayer, and magic formula that he inherits from his father or purchases from another hunter or shaman
• Crow: Young men need hallucinatory experience to be successful in love, warfare, horsestealing, trading, and all other important endeavors. In keeping with their code of personal bravery and endurance, they seek these visions primarily through self-inflicted torture.
SHAMANISTIC CULTS
Shamans: are women and men who are socially recognized as having
special abilities for entering into contact with spirit beings and for
controlling supernatural forces
There are broad similarities in the techniques used by shamans to cure
their patients:• Go into a trance by smoking tobacco, taking drugs, beating a drum,
dancing monotonously, or simply by closing the eyes and concentrating• The trance begins with rigidity of the body, sweating, and heavy
breathing• While in the trance, the shaman may act as a medium, transmitting
messages from the ancestors• With the help of friendly spirits, shamans predict the future, locate lost
objects, identify the cause of illness, battle with spirits on behalf of the patient, prescribe cures, and give advice on how clients can protect themselves against the evil intentions of enemies
!Kung: use a method of healing
based on the principle of n/um: healing
energy that originates from the gods• Accessed during an all-night dance• As dancing intensifies, the n/um of
the healers is activated in the healers thru the kia (trance) – is said to boil fiercely within the healer
• In the kia, healers express the wishes of the living by entering into a struggle with the spirits to rescue the souls of the sick
• To become a healer, a person must undergo intense training, by the time they reach adulthood, about half the men and 10% of women have become healers
SHAMANISTIC CULTS, CONT’D.
Tapirape: a village people of central
Brazil, shamans derive their powers
from dreams in which they encounter
spirits who become their helpers• Dreams are caused by the soul
leaving the body and going on a journey
• Frequent dreaming is a sign of shamanistic talent
• Mature shamans, with the help of spirit familiars, can turn into birds or launch themselves though the air in gourd “canoes”, visit with ghosts and demons, or travel to distant villages forward and backward in time
COMMUNAL CULTS
Use rituals to strengthen group continuity by communicating
socially constructed meaning signifying the continuity of the group
Communal rites fall into 2 major categories:• 1. Rites of Solidarity: participation in dramatic public rituals
enhances the sense of group identity, coordinates the actions of the individual members of the group, and prepares the group for immediate or future cooperative action
• 2. Rites of Passage: celebrate the social movement of individuals into and out of groups or into or out of statuses of critical importance to the individual and to the community (examples: reproduction, the achievement of manhood or womanhood, marriage and death)
Rituals: are formal, stylized, and
repetitive acts that are performed in
special, sacred places at set times
Rites of Solidarity: are directed
toward the welfare of the
community, rather than the
individual. They reaffirm the power
of the group, which transcends
individuals
COMMUNAL CULTS, CONT’D.
Rites of solidarity are common among
clans and other descent group
Such groups usually have names and
emblems that identify group members and
set one group off from another
Totems: are objects, such as animals and
plants, that serve as the emblems or
symbols of a kinship group or a person• Members of each group believe they
were descendents of their totem• They refrain from harming or eating
their totem• The group sees their totem as their
companion and protector
COMMUNAL CULTS, CONT’D.
Communal Rites of Passage: are ceremonies that mark changes in a
person’s social position that are of general public concern
Examples of this: birth, puberty, marriage, death
Rites of passage are important public rituals that recognize a wider set of
altered social relationships
The 3 phases of Rites of passage are:• 1. Separation – separated from the routines associated with their
earlier life and prepare to move from one place or status to another
• 2. Transition – Liminal Phase: a temporary ritual state, during which the individual is cut off from normal social contacts to demarcate a contrast from regular social life
• 3. Incorporation – sometimes passage rites are collective, collective liminality, called communitas, creates a community spirit and feeling of togetherness
ECCLESIASTICAL CULTS
Ecclesiastical religion: is found in highly centralized political systems
They have professional clergy or priesthood organized into bureaucracy
This bureaucracy is usually associated with and under the control of a
central temple
At a secondary or provincial temple centers, the clergy may exercise a
considerable amount of independence
Ecclesiastical specialists are formally designated persons who are elected
or appointed to devote themselves to conducting rituals at regular intervals• These rituals usually include a wide variety of techniques for reinforcing
support for the supremacy of the ruling class
RELIGION & POLITICAL ECONOMY: HIGH GODS
The level of political economy influences the way in
which gods are thought to relate to each other and
to human beings
The belief that superordination and subordination
characterize relationships among the gods helps
obtain the cooperation and submission of the
commoner classes in stratified societies
The relationship of religion to structure
and infrastructure can also be seen in the
process known as revitalization
Revitalization movements: occur during
times of change, in which religious leaders
emerge to bring forth positive change
Anthony Wallace defines it as “deliberate
and organized attempts by some members
of a society to construct a more satisfying
culture through rapid acceptance of a
pattern of multiple innovations”
REVITALIZATION MOVEMENTS
Most revitalization movements follow
a fairly uniform process:• A society is in the state of
equilibrium• A society is pushed out of
equilibrium by various forces, such as climatic or biotic change, epidemic disease, war and conquest
• The society becomes disillusioned and disorganized
• Social deterioration sets the stage for a revitalization movement to appear in an effort to bring about a more satisfying society
• An individual or group constructs a new, idealistic image of culture that forms the basis for social action
WOVOKANative American Revitalization
Provoked by European invasion and
conquest and expulsion of the Native
American peoples, and the
destruction of their natural resources
The Piute prophet became the leader
of the Ghost Dance: which they
believed would place dancers in
contact with the spirit world and
hasten the time when people would
be reunited with their dead ancestors.
This meant that they would
outnumber the Whites and hence be
more powerful
Emile Durkheim believed the essence of religion is a moral
system that enables individuals to function as coordinated
units
He saw the fundamental psychological aspect of religion as
the elimination of the self and the denial of individuality for
the purpose of the social group, which is greater than the self
Religion is a symbolic representation of society
Religion emerges through the distinction between sacred
and profane• Sacred: is the realm of human experience that evokes an
attitude of awe and reverence• Profane: is the realm of the secular, it is the world of
everyday domestic duties that are essentially utilitarian• Sanctity: is the quality of unquestionable truthfulness
credited by the faithful to unverifiable propositions
RELIGION & SOCIETY
INCEST TABOO
By surrounding incest prohibitions with the aura
of sacredness, the long-term individual and
collective interest comes to prevail, and the
ambiguities and doubts that the individual feels
about renouncing the prohibited relationship are
resolved more decisively than would otherwise be
possible
This does not mean that incest does not occur or
that all psychological doubts are removed but that
such doubts are brought under effective social
control
A tension between short-run and long-run costs
and benefits may also explain the origin of certain
food taboos that are regarded as sacred obligations
The ancient Israelite prohibition on the
consumption of pork:• Pigs require shade and moisture to regulate their
body temperature• Unlike the domesticated ruminants, such as
cattle, sheep, and goats, pigs don’t give milk• Pigs can’t pull carts or plows, nor can they
subsist on grass• With the progressive deforestation and
desertification of the Middle East caused by the spread and intensification of agriculture and stock raising and by population growth, habitat zones suitable for pig rearing became scarce
TAB OOS AGAINST EATING PORK
Hence, an animal that was once reared and consumed as a relatively inexpensive source of fat and protein could no longer be reared and consumed by large numbers of people
THE SACRED COW
The case of the sacred cattle of India conforms to the
general theory that the flesh of certain animals is made
taboo when it becomes very expensive as a result of
ecological changes
With the rise of the state and of dense rural and urban
populations, cattle could no longer be raised in sufficient
numbers to be used both as a source of meat and as the
principal source of traction power for pulling plows
The Hindu doctrine of ahimsa puts the full power of
religion in support of the command not to kill cattle or eat
beef, even in times of extreme food scarcity