Harappa Civilization

HISTORY

GLOBAL MANIA

Concepts

Concepts

Introduction

Discovery of Harappa

Subsistence Strategies

Mohenjodaro

Artifacts

Religion

Decline

Introduction

Fertile river valleys had been the cradle of human civilisation since time immemorial.

The traces of these ancient cultures have been explored by

the archaeologists across the world.

Let us study about one such river valley civilisation that flourished in Indian subcontinent. The civilisation that has dated back Indian history for almost 5000 years,

i.e., Harappa Civilisation.

Continuous efforts of archaeologists help us to know about ancient people. They brought to surface the

achievements of these people.

Discovery of Harappa

Initial Discovery

Videos

John Marshall

R.E.M Wheeler

Discovered Evidence

Subsistence Strategies

By CunninghamText and inscriptions used as guide to investigationsAccounts left by Chinese Buddhist pilgrims used as referenceRecovering artifacts of cultural value

Initial Discovery

• In 1924 by John Marshall (Director-General of the ASI)

• Formally announced to the world

Harappa Discovered

• Stint as Director General of ASI• First professional archaeologist to

work in India• Brought his experience of working

in Greece and Crete to the field• Keen to excavate patterns of

everyday life

John Marshall

• Excavated along different horizontal units• Measured uniformly throughout the mound• Ignored stratigraphy of the site• Artifacts found from same unit grouped together• Belonged to different strata of soil

Style of Working

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• Became Director of ASI in 1944• Rectified the problem of stratigraphy• Brought a military-like precision to

excavation• Did not dig along uniform horizontal

lines

R.E.M. Wheeler

• Civilisation dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE • Called the Mature Harappan Culture • Earlier and later cultures existed • Called Early Harappan and Late Harappan• Existed in the same area

Phases of the Civilisation

• Resulted in major sites being located in Pakistan

• Spurred Indian archaeologists to locate Indian sites

• Settlements recovered in Kutch and Punjab

• Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi and Dholavira added to list

Effects of Partition

• International interest in Harappan archaeology

• Specialists working on the subcontinent

• Use of modern scientific techniques including surface exploration

• Trying to recover traces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animal remains

• Available evidence minutely analysed

Growing Interest

Found fairly early in nineteenth centuryReached CunninghamImportance not realisedMissed significance of Harappa

Discovered Evidence

Sketch of seal given to Cunningham

• By discovery of more seals• Recovered by Daya Ram Sahni• More found at Mohenjodaro by R D Banerji• Led to the decision that they belonged to a

common culture

Significance Realised

Harappa Seals Mohenjo-Daro Seals

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Subsistence Strategies

Dietary Habits

Agriculture

• Wide range of plants and animals (including fish) eaten• Charred grains found, reconstruct dietary habits• Grains found include lentils, chickpeas and sesame• Millets found from sites in Gujarat• Finds of rice relatively rare

Dietary Habits

• Animal bones found (include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig)

• Were domesticated• Bones of wild species (like boar, deer and gharial) also

found• Were probably hunted

Use of Animals

• Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that bull was known

• Oxen used to plough field• Models of plough found – Cholistan and Banawali (Haryana)

sites • Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan)

Agriculture

• Harappan sites located in semi-arid lands.• Irrigation was probably required for agriculture.• Traces of canals found at Shortughai in Afghanistan.• Water reservoirs were found in Dholavira (Gujarat).

Using Water

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About the Site

Mohenjodaro

Layout

Distinctive Structures

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• Most well known site• A planned urban centre• Better preserved than Harappa (which was destroyed

unintentionally by brick robbers)

Mohenjo-Daro

• Settlement divided into two sections:

Layout

Layout of Mohenjo-Daro

Citadel

Lower Town

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• Walled citadel

• Was higher and smaller

• Physically separated from lower town

Citadel

• Buildings constructed on mud brick platforms• Reason for unusual height• Had prominent structures like Warehouse, Granary and

the Great bath

• Massive structure • Probably used for special public purposes• Lower brick portions remain• Upper portions probably of wood• Decayed now

Warehouse

• Large rectangular tank• Surrounded by corridor on all sides• Two flights of steps leading to water• Tank made water-tight using mortar of gypsum• Water flowed into large drain

Great Bath

Length – 54 mtsBreadth – 33 mtsThickness of outer wall – 3 mtsSituated in rectangular verandah

Surrounded by gallery and roomsGreat bath centrally situated

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• To the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms.• Four on each side • Drains from each bathroom connected to a drain.• Scholars suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special

ritual bath.

Distinctive Structure

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Lower Town

Features

Houses Sanitation

Layout of House

• Was fortified• Several buildings built on platforms• Building activity restricted to a fixed area on the platforms.• Settlement planned and implemented accordingly

Features : Lower Town

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• Rooms centred around a courtyard• Centre of activity like cooking and weaving

Houses

BricksReeds

Grass and husk

Door

WindowMud plaster

Construction materials were used in Harappan houses.

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No windows in the walls along ground level.Main entrance did not give view of inner courtyard.

Layout of Harappan House

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• Bathrooms were paved with bricks in every house.• Staircases were used to go to next floor.• Evidence of wells discovered from some houses.• Every house had one wall on the street.

Other Rooms

• Eliminated through well planned drainage system• Drains were laid alongside streets in grid like

arrangement.• Domestic waste water flowed into street drains.• Larger drains were lined in the centre of streets.

Waste Water

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Artifacts

Classifying Artifacts

Materials for Production

Centres of Production

Beads

Harappan Script

Harappan Weights

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Classification

Two Simple Methods• First: In terms of materials such as stone, clay, metal, bone and

ivory

• Second: In terms of function (more complicated ) – whether tool or ornament or both or meant for ritual use

Classification of Artifacts

• Often shaped by its resemblance to present-day things• Beads, querns, stone blades and pots • Functions also identified by investigating the context in

which it was found.• Artifacts found in a house, drain, grave or in a kiln.

Function of the Artifact

• As (a) Utilitarian (b) Luxury

• Utilitarian includes objects of daily use made of stone and clay.

• Also includes querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (body scrubbers)

• Found distributed throughout the settlement

Classifying Artifacts

• If found rarely, classified by archaeologists as luxury • Pots of faience considered rare• Found only in large settlements• Artifacts made by raw material not available locally,

considered luxury item

Artifacts of Luxury

• Some made of two or more stones cemented together

• Some of stone with gold caps

• Some decorated by incising or painting

• Some had designs etched onto them• Shapes numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical,

spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented

Design of Beads

Material for Beads

Copper and BronzeCarnelianJasperCrystalQuartzSteatite

• Materials like clay available locally• Stone, timber and metal procured from alluvial plains• Models of bullock cart suggest transportation of material• Riverine routes along Indus used for transportation

Material for Production

• Shells from Nageshwar and Balakot

• Lapis lazuli, a blue stone from Shortughai in Afghanistan

• Carnelian from Lothal• Steatite from Gujarat and

Rajasthan• Copper from Rajasthan• Gold from South India

Procuring Material

• Dead laid out in pits• Hollowed out burial pits lined with bricks• Belief in afterlife prevalent• Proved by existence of pottery and ornaments in graves• Some dead buried with copper mirrors

Burials

• By archaeologists• Looked for raw materials such as stone nodules, whole

shells, copper ore, tools, unfinished objects, rejects and waste material

• Waste best indicator of craft work at site

Identifying Centres of Production

• Harappan settlement near sea coast• Specialised centre for making shell objects including

bangles, ladles and inlays • Taken to other settlements

Balakot

• Small settlement (7 hectares)

• Mohenjo-Daro (125 hectares)

• Exclusively devoted to craft production like bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making

Chanhudaro

• Copper probably brought from Oman.• Omani copper and Harappan artifacts

have traces of nickel suggesting a common origin.

• Sea contact with Bahrain• Mentioned in Mesopotamian texts

Contact with Distant Lands

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• Facilitated long distance communication• Seals pressed on bags of goods• Bag reaching intact meant not tampered with• Sealing conveyed identity of sender

Sealings in Harappa

Process of Sealing

• Goods were packed properly.• Wet clay applied on it• Impression of seal made on it • Left it to become dry

• Writing present on seals• Most inscriptions short, longest with 26 signs• Script not deciphered till date• Not alphabetical, had too many signs – 375 to 400• Written from right to left

Harappan Script

• Scripts were probably written right to left.• It is proved by seals that show wider spacing on right and

cramping on left.• The writer ran out of space while writing right to left.

Wider spacing

CrampingCramping Wider spacing

Style of Writing

• On a variety of objects• On copper tools, rims of jars, copper and

terracotta tablets, jewellery and bone rods

Script Found

• Very precise stones called Chert• Usually cubical• Had no markings• Used to regulate exchanges

Harappan Weights

• Lower denominations were Binary (1, 2, 4, 8,16, 32 etc. up to 12,800)

• Higher denominations followed decimal system• Smaller weights used for weighing jewellery• Metal pans also found

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• Indications of complex decisions taken by higher authority

• Uniformity in pottery, seals and weights across settlements

• Uniformity in ratio of bricks

• Settlements in specific locations

Authority in Harappa

Priest King

• As understood by some archaeologists• Harappan society had no rulers.• Equal status enjoyed by all citizens. • Others feel that Mohenjo-Daro had a separate ruler.• Some feel that there was a common state.

Differing Opinions on Authority

• Seen by structures that may have been assigned ritual significance

• Includes the Great Bath • Also fire altars found at Kalibangan and

Lothal• Terracotta figurines of women who are

heavily jewelled have been found.• Some had elaborate head-dresses.• Names like Mother Goddess signify a

religious bent.

Religion in Harappa

Mother Goddess?

• Reconstructed by examining seals• Some depict ritualistic scenes• Some with plant motifs indicate nature worship• Others with the ‘Unicorn’ indicate mythical creatures.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

• Shows a figure seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture surrounded by animals

• Regarded as depiction of “proto-Shiva”

Proto Shiva Seal

Decline of the Civilisation

Signs of Decline

Factors of Decline

Seen around c.1800 BCEMature Harappan sites abandonedTransformation of material culture witnessed while distinctive artifacts disappeared

Signs of Decline

• Sites located in Gujarat, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh witnessed simultaneous increase in population

• House construction techniques show decline

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• Historians not unanimous over causes of decline • Propounded many theories for decline

Ecological imbalance Shifting of river beds Frequent flooding Aryan invasion

Factors for Decline

• Ecological imbalance: Increased human interference led to ecological changes and subsequent decline in land and agriculture. Shifts in monsoon pattern and changes in temperature left the area more arid.

• Shifting of river beds: Changes in the drainage patterns and correspondent widespread flooding would have disrupted agricultural base.

•Harappa: River Indus is at present flowing 4 km away from the present site.

Listing the Factors

• Frequent flooding: It has been opined by historians that many Harappan sites were destroyed due to frequent flooding.

•Mohenjodaro: Evidence has been found that it was devastated 7 times by floods.

• Aryan invasion: Mortimer Wheeler presented the view that Aryans invasion may have led to the decline of Harappan civilisation.

•Discovery of skeletons at Mohenjodaro without proper cremation. (Mohenjodaro = Mound of dead)

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Now, on your FINGER TIPS…

• Citadel: It was a fortress for protecting a town in the Harappan civilisation. This was built on a higher level in comparison to the town. Citadel was located on the western side of the settlement.

• ASI: It stands for the Archaeological Survey of India. The department works under the Ministry of Culture. It is a premier organisation for archaeological research and protection of cultural heritage sites in India.

• Stratigraphy: It is the study of strata or layers. It refers to the application of the Law of Superposition to soil and geological strata containing archaeological materials in order to determine the relative ages of layers.

Continuing slides are supportive slides, need not to be seen

individually.

Excavation of Harappa Civilisation

1828

Charles Masson

1853-56

Alexander Cunningham

1920

John Marshall

1921

D.R Sahni

1922

R.D Banerjee

1946

Mortimer Wheeler

Charles Masson

• A deserter of EEIC’s Bengal artillery

• 1827 – Left regiment at Agra, reached Indus lands

• Territory not the part of EEIC’s Indian possession

• First European to narrate about Harappan ruins• Wrote – “Narratives of Various Journeys in

Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab”

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• Regarded as father of Indian Archaeology• Influenced by James Princep• His collection of rare Indian coins is on display

at British Museum.• His most important contribution lies in

identifying the lost cities of India.• He actively contributed in the excavation of

Sarnath, Sanchi and Mahabodhi temple.

Alexander Cunningham

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• Director General of ASI from 1902 to 1928

• Involved native Indians to contribute in excavation of their own country

• 1913: Excavated Taxila

• Revealed Harappan civilisation to the world

John Marshall

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• Discovered and excavated Harappa

• Aware of presence of ancient monument but never assumed of a city

• Found some seals and considered it to be of pre- Aryan period

• Excavation of 50 mts depth made

D. R Sahni

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• Discovered and excavated Mohenjodaro

• Adopted stratigraphy method for excavating the site

R.D Bannerjee

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• Became Director General of ASI in 1943

• Explored details of Indus Valley Civilisation at Mohenjodaro

• Returned in 1948, became professor of Archaeology

• 1949-50 – Archaeological Adviser to the Government of Pakistan

Mortimer Wheeler

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Amazing Facts

• Harappans were the first cotton producers of the world.• Chnahudaro was the only site that had no citadel.• A weighing scale made up of ivory has been found from

Lothal and Mohenjodaro. • The doors of houses in Lothal opened on main street.• The evidence of fortification of lower town found in

Kalibangan.• The evidence of mummy found in Lothal testifies

relations with Egypt.

Global Mania

Egypt

China

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia

Unpredictable rivers (Tigris and Euphrates)Flat land open to invasionSituated in semi-arid climatic zone

Geography of Mesopotamia

Plains

Steppes

Mountain of Iran

Desert

Desert

Desert

Inhabitable region

Centre of the civilisation

Locating Mesopotamia

In the north-east lies green, undulating plains with enough rainfall to

grow crops.

In the north,lies a stretch of upland called a steppe where

animal herding is done.

To the east, tributaries of the Tigris provide routes of

communication into the mountains of Iran.The south is a desert - the first

cities and writing emerged here.

The Rivers Euphrates and Tigris made the regions fertile.

Land of Diverse Environments

• Mesopotamia was a succession of societies.Sumerian (Sumer)AkkadFirst BabylonAssyriaSecond Babylon

• Based on city-states• Geography influenced development• Theocratic form of government• Divided into classes• Class System

Monarch/nobilityPriests/scribesCommonersSlaves

Sumerian Society

Ziggurats – stepped towers topped by temples

Ziggurats were the focal point of the city-state.

Cuneiform – First system of writing

Cuneiform tablet with envelope

Cuneiform – Developed to keep record of business transactions and taxes

Later used for literature

The first work of literature was the Epic of Gilgamesh – a Sumerian flood story

Writing was reserved for the wealthy classes

Deciphered letters in Cuneiform and their equivalent English Alphabets

• Trade links with Egypt and Harappa

• Sumerian mathematics based on 60 (clock and circle)

• Sumerian astronomical charts basis for modern astronomy

• Sumerians invented quadratic expressions

Sumerian Trade

Conquered Sumer – Akkad first empireAttempted to centralise powerSargon I – First emperorAbsorbed Sumerian culture

Akkad

Conquered Akkad

Continued Sumerian culture

Code of Hammurabi 282 laws Based on Lex Talonis

(eye for an eye) and social class

Babylon

Conquered Babylon

Highly organised military

Ruthless and hated

Largest of Mesopotamian empires

Assyria

Founded by king Nebuchadnezzar

Introduced hanging gardens

Continued Sumerian culture

Conquered by Persians

Neo Babylon

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• Developed along river Nile• Also known as ‘Gift of Nile’• Geography – Natural barriers

Desert Mediterranean and Red seas

• Form of government – Theocracy• Bureaucracy – vizier• Three major periods – Old, Middle and New Kingdoms

Egyptian Civilisation

Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt – King Menes (Narmer)

Pharaoh (a God) – separated from population

Era of peace

Some trade with Mesopotamia/Africa

The Old Kingdom

Construction of Pyramids began

Slavery not existed or was on less scale

Kingdom fell due to power struggles with nobility

The first pyramid

The pyramids at Giza

Contrary to popular belief, the pyramids were not built with slave labor but by the Egyptian people.

How was it done?

• Pharaohs were more accessible.• They derived support from middle class.• Extensive trade links with Mesopotamia,

Mediterranean, and Africa • Fell to Hyksos, supposed to be of Asiatic origin

The Middle Kingdom

Egyptians gained knowledge of war from Hyksos.

Era of war and expansion

Large slave population

First female ruler: Hatshepsut

The New Kingdom

Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton)Established monotheismAton: Sun GodShifted capital from Thebes to el-AmarnaQueen NefertitiHad very short reign

Akhenaton and his wife, Nefertiti

Succeeded throne at the age of 9 yrs

Polytheism restored by Tutankhamen

Restored traditional privileges to priesthood

Tried to restore relations with neighbours

Quite successful, suggested by gifts recovered from his tomb

Forensic experts have created the real Tutankhamen

Tutankhamen

Tomb of Tutankhamen

Prolific ruler, fought to reclaim territories in Africa and West Asia

5th year of reign fought battle of Kadesh

Won territories, later lost to Hittites

Conquered by nomadic sea people

Last real independent kingdom

Ramses II

The Treaty of Kadesh

Ramses the Great today

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The Chinese Civilisation

Flourished on banks of river Huang He River popularly known as “China’s Sorrow” because of its devastating floodsNorthern borders vulnerableWestern borders mostly covered by desertSouth-west frontier: Mighty HimalayasEastern frontier: Pacific OceanCivilisation centred around Arable land

Geography of the Civilisation

• Yangshao/Longshan People • Xia Dynasty – mythical?• Shang Dynasty:

3,000 states – FragmentedKing – Head shamanDynasty based on divine rule Technologically advancedBureaucracy increasingly sophisticated

People and Rulers

Writing found on: Oracle BonesProminently

ideographic symbolsPrimarily for religious

purpose

Writing and Script

BronzeSophisticated

metallurgy skillsControlled by

elitesUsed for

religious rituals and weapons

Bronze Craft

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Learning through Maps

Civilisations of Ancient World

Early Harappan Settlements

Mature Harappan Settlements

Four Great Civilisations

Egyptian Civilisation

Mesopotamian Civilisation Harappan

Civilisation

Chinese Civilisation

Early Harappan Settlements

Amri-Nal cultures

Damb Sadaat

Kot Diji

Siswal culture

Mature Harappan Settlements

LothalRangpur

Dholavira

Chanhudaro

Mohenjodaro

Harappa

Ganeriwala

Kalibangan

Banawali

Mitathal

Manda

Sites located in India

Sites located in Pakistan

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Harappa Trade

Harappa

Silver

Copper

Gold

Copper & Steatite

Carnelian

Situated in Sindh province of modern PakistanExcavated by N.G MajumdarFirst site to provide evidence of pre-Harappan artifactsNo evidence of fortificationCreated artificial gulf for defenceEvidence of reindeer found

Amri-Nal Culture

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Situated on the left bank of river Indus in the Sindh province of PakistanExcavated by Fazl Ahmad Khan (1955)Major discovery: Arrows made of stone

Kot Diji Culture

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Located in Baluchistan, outside Indus Valley

Similarities evident in ceramic form and design

Shows – these areas were in contact during middle and late third millennium B.C.

Damb Sadaat Culture

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• Located in Hissar district of Haryana• Three stages of Harappan culture revealed• Brought to light early Harappan ceramic culture with

super imposition of late Siswal ceramic culture

Siswal Culture

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Mix ‘n’ Match

Identify the Site

Group these archaeological sites on the basis of their distribution in India and Pakistan.

LothalRangpur

Dholavira

ChanhudaroMohenjodaro

Harappa

Ganeriwala

Banawali

Mitathal

Manda

Back to List Solution

• Located in Khadir Byet of Rann of Kutch• Stone slab having largest letters of

Harappan script found • Located in Gujarat• Only site having three lines of

fortifications

Identify the Site

Ans: Dholavira

• Situated on left bank of river Ravi

• First description provided by Charles Masson

• Railway contractors used bricks of this settlement

• Excavation began in 1921 under D.R Sahni

Ans: Harappa

• Situated on bank of River Bhogava

• One of the production centres of the civilisation

• A bead factory discovered from the site

• Contributed in Harappan trade with distant lands

Ans: Lothal

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