EXTENSION SYSTEM IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

LAND GRANT COLLEGE SYSTEM (1862)- land grant college system came into being with the passage of morrill act by the U.S.Congress in 1862, which provided grants of public land to states and for establishing maintaining at least one college (in a state) where the leading object was the teaching of branches of learning related to agriculture and the mechanic arts.

FARM DEMONSTRATION WORK (1903)- farm demonstration work began in 1903 when dr. Seaman a knapp of the bureau of plant industry of U.S.D.A. Appointed 22 men in southern states to demonstrate the best methods of growing cotton under boll-weevil conditions.

SMITH LIVER ACT (1914)- in 1914, the congress passed the smith-lever act, creating a nation wide “Co-operative extension service”, so called because it is a co-operative arrangement between the government, the landgrant colleges, and the people. It is a partnership agency in which the officials of government federal, state and county-sit in council with rural people and together analyse local conditions, take stock of their resources, and make help to carry out programmes for the financial, educational and social benefit of the community and its individual members.”

OUTLINE OF ORGANISATION OF CO-OPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE

The following chart shows the levels at which government many give authority and funds to have the various parts of the service. Contractual relationships are covered by written agreements, for example between land-grant college and the counties, and in some states between the county government and the sponsoring organisation. Co-operative relationships run throughout the service. Note that co-operative extension service is a branch of the land grant institution.

Federal congress United states department of agriculture secretary,Director of extension (one of many divisions in the department)

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State legislatures land-grand institution President of governing board College of agriculture Research, teaching Co-operative extension service Director of extension Supervisors and specialists

Other colleges

County government county sponsoring organisation

County extension service

County extension agents

Citizens leaders, members and co-operators

Thus the co-operative extension service has three major units, the county, the state and the nation. Each has an organisational pattern adapted to the work of the unit. These patterns vary in detail according to the legislative enactments and institutional concepts. However, an idea of the state organizations of extension service can be had from figure.

Funding : Generally states, counties and farmers organisations furnish approximately half the funds and the federal government half.

Summary of functions:

1. The federal director of extension: represents the secretary of agriculture in the states, the counties and the colleges. Associated with the director are a group of administrative officials, liaison officers, and subject matter specialists. The federal directorate develops policies affecting agriculture.

2. The state extension director: is the leader responsible for the operation of the directorate in the state. He is responsible for the administration and execution of all duties and obligations agreed upon by the land grant colleges and the united states department of agriculture. He administers all funds, looks after all projects and plans, examines and approves all publications, and is the link between the state and the united states department of agriculture in matters of rural development.

3. The supervisors under the state directorate: are the representatives of the state director and his eyes and ears. The supervisors interprets extension objectives, methods and procedures to the county personnel and often also to the people. He brings back to the state director information on problems, needs and activities of the agents and the people.

4. The state subject matter specialists: each such specialist usually deals with one subject, but in some counties he has to deal with several. The subject matter specialist represents a subject matter department of the united states department of agriculture, the research stations and the land grant colleges. On behalf of the director, he assist the county agents in their subject- matter programme.

5. The county agents: the county is the crucial unit in extension work. The county activities are centred around the county agent, who is generally assisted by a home agent, an associate agent and an assistant agent. There is no paid staff below at the ground level as it is considered that only an adequately trained person can impress the sceptical farmer and the rural people. These county agents therefore, cannot reach every individual farmer frequently and have therefore to approach and enthuse all, through organised groups such as commodity organisations (dairy, fruit, cotton etc.) or multipurpose clubs (women’s clubs, 4-H Clubs, the farm bureau, the national grange, the national farmer’s unit).

6. County extension council: an elected body composed of one man and one women from each township in the county. It is responsible for arranging local financing and for assisting in planning, executing and supervising county extension work.

History and Agricultural Extension System in Japan

Agricultural extension work had also started before 1900 in Japan. Following the

Meiji Restoration in 1868, new administrative structures and various modernizing

policies were adopted. Two agricultural colleges were established in the mid-1870s,

staffed by Western (mainly European) teachers. At these colleges and government

farms, experimental work was conducted and new practices were tested and

developed. At the same time, agricultural fairs and exhibitions were begun, and

progressive Japanese farmers gave talks and demonstrations at them. These led to

the development of many agricultural societies from 1881 onwards, a "movement"

formalized by legislation in 1899. In 1885, the government also initiated, at national

and prefectural (State) levels, a system of appointing experienced farmers as itinerant

agricultural lecturers (because the Western "experts" knew little about rice

husbandry). Supported by the work at government experiment stations, established

from 1893, these farmers formed the basis of agricultural extension work. This

activity, including the establishment of demonstration farms, was allocated in 1903 to

the numerous agricultural societies which, with state funds, appointed agricultural

technicians. In 1910, the 1899 law was strengthened; thereafter, farmers were

required to belong to a village agricultural society which was linked to a national

network and hierarchy of societies, and farmers were compelled to adopt the

technical guidance and recommendations of the societies' extension workers - what

became known as "forced extension".

The Japanese agriculture has experienced several phases of reforms and

modernization for more than a century ago. Since the end of the Second World War

Japan started to embark on a concerted effort to revitalize its agriculture sector in

order to boost production to meet the escalating demand for food. The Central and

Prefectural Governments worked closely to enhance the training of farmers to uplift

their technical and managerial skills and to ensure sustainability, and this was

remarkably carried out through the activities and programs by the agricultural

extension services.

The Japanese extension system for agriculture which started in 1948 was meant

for helping farmers to acquire useful, appropriate and practical knowledge in the

domain of agriculture (Fujita, n. d.). This system was adapted from the Western

extension system into the Japanese culture to suit their local needs and requirements.

Traditionally, extension focuses on disseminating R&D information from research

laboratories to farmers (Roling, 1990), providing farmers with technical advice as a

guide to improved farming methods (Williams, 1968), training of new, youth and

women farmers as well as community reorganization.

Indicators of Research –extension linkage forms

Indicators JAPAN1.(a) Number of national research institutes 19 (b) Number of research

institutes/experimental stations operating at state level

255

2. Ratio of extension worker to farm families 1.2523. Adult Literacy (Percentage of total population

with basic education)99.0%

4. (a) Nature of agricultural administration Decentralized and many role given to prefectures

(b) Number of Bureaux/departments/agencies in agricultural ministry

8

Japan’s 19 national research institutes have networks with 255 prefectural

research institutes and experiment stations through six national agricultural

experiment stations. Since the national government does not directly offer extension

services, agricultural research–extension linkage in Japan operates at the prefecture

(state) level. It is a bottom-up management system in which decisions on linkage

activities are taken at prefecture level without the direct involvement of national

officers. Research–extension linkage involves the use of subject-matter specialists,

technical committees, joint study meetings, and staff exchanges between prefectural

research and extension organisations. Farmers’ problems and needs are compulsorily

sourced by district extension centres from farmers, agro-cooperative societies,

schools, and town/village administrative offices. Local needs identified by

extensionists are supplemented with those identified by researchers and subject-

matter specialists.

In general, decisions on the selection of farmers’ problems/needs as annual

research themes are finalised at prefectural level by a committee comprised of

researchers, administrators, subject-matter specialists, extension workers, farmers’

representatives and knowledgeable persons. Although national officers are not

directly involved in this process, they make input by putting forward unresolved

research themes that have been referred to them and by highlighting policy directives

on research themes from the National Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.

The Japanese research–extension system is characterised as form A; a bottom-up

approach with prefectural research and extension organisations of equal status.

Extension System in Malaysia

In Malaysia, agricultural extension has been regarded as an important tool which complements the function of the major agents of change, viz. the researchers, the farmer, the service institutions (for credit, farm inputs, etc.) and government support services, to enhance agricultural productivity in the Country.

The philosophy of extension is based on the concept of helping the people to help themselves through educational processes. Extension is primarily concerned with the dissemination of ideas in the form of technology to rural people and the promotion of action that leads to overall improvement of their farm, home and community.

Agricultural Research

Due to the emphasis to accelerate economic development and better exploitation of the agricultural export potential of Malaysia’s main export crops, research into the various commodities are being carried out by separate organizations. The Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia (RRIM) was the first of such research organizations to be set up on this basis. It was established in 1925.

Organizational Set-Up

The agricultural extension of Malaysia is shared by a number of ministries through their extension agencies, e.g. in the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), it is the Department of Agriculture (DOA), which is the lead agency in extension on most crops except rubber and pineapple; the Department of Veterinary Services (DVS) on livestock; and the Department of Fisheries (DOF) on fisheries. The Ministry of Land and Regional Development provides extension services to the rubber smallholders.

The extension services are organized at two levels:

Firstly, the federal level which provides the backstopping support to the network at the state level; and

Secondly, the state level extension services which provide technical advice to the farmers through the scheduled training and the field visits (T & V) and through the Rural Agricultural Training Centres (RATC).

Extension Methods

Figure 1 show the extension method which is practiced in Malaysia. The research is conducted by the technology production agencies. Once the research finding has been established, it is passed on to the technology transfer agencies, which will then pass it further to the users.

Present Status

Development in the Agricultural Extension System under the FOA

Farmer’s Organization Authority (FOA) is a statutory agency which was established under the Ministry of Agriculture to galvanize the largely unorganized and inefficient small farmers in the rural areas by promoting their participation in farmer’s institution. Its major task is to set up and develop the farmer’s organizations (FOs) at the area, state and national levels towards viability and eventual self-reliance.

The FOA has a three- tiered organizational structure. At the headquarters’ level is the director- general who reports to the chairman of the FOA board and manages 12 divisions headed by the respective directors. The division involved with the socio-economic function of the FOA includes the Trading, Agriculture Development, Farmer’s Development, Industrial Development, Technical Development and the Training Divisions. The headquarters at the central level is responsible for policy-making, planning, coordination, monitoring and evaluation. The National Farmers Organization (NAFAS) comes under the direct jurisdiction of the Federal FOA office.

1. Research and Extension LinkagePresently, research in the fields of agriculture, fisheries and livestock is being undertaken by

various agencies. Among these are the Malaysia Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI, Crops and agro-based industries); Palm Oil Research Institute Malaysia (PORIM, oil-palm); Fishery Department (livestock & animal husbandry); National Tobacco Board (tobacco); Agricultural University (livestock, crop commodities, fishery and food technology); and the private sector.

The Training Division of the FOA arranges courses and seminars to be conducted with the cooperation of the research agencies. These benefit the planners, the project managers, the extension workers and the entrepreneurs.

2. Extension MethodsDifferent extension approaches or a combination of them are being applied depending on the

locality, the community, the cropping pattern and the type or nature of projects being carried out.a. Mobilization and Member Education

Technology Production Agencies

Technology Transfer Agencies

Users of Technology

Under this programme the FOA disseminates current information about the latest agricultural/agribusiness developments through campaigns, dialogues, publications, audio-visual presentations and exhibitions.

FOA has designed certain training programs in two aspects:1) To change the attitude of the farmers and the officers and to inculcate in them values that would

engender harmony among them.2) To increase efficiency, skills and enrichment in knowledge among the members.

To achieve the objectives of the above programmes, the FOA organized courses on motivation, knowledge, entrepreneurship, leadership and technical subjects; on-the-job training, field visits, seminars, demonstration, and other extension programmes.

b. Community Based Human Development ApproachThis project is well supported by the Ministry of Agriculture. Under this programme, funds have

been given to improve the physical infrastructure of the community such as agri-roads, bridges and community halls.

3. Commercialization of Agricultural TechnologiesAmong the programmes being carried out by the FOA are agribusiness activities and the

development of entrepreneurs among the farmer members. Commercially viable projects are being encouraged to be implemented by the FOs and their members either as group or individual projects. Under the entrepreneurial programme of the FOA, potential entrepreneurs among the farmer members, who have been identified, are provided assistance in the form of loans or grants in order to help them develop their enterprise into bigger and viable ventures.

Policies / Measures

The measures relating to the improvement of the agricultural extension system being undertaken are:

1. Since agricultural development programmes fall under the jurisdiction of several ministries, it has been recommended that a National Agricultural Council be established to coordinate the planning, policy formulation and implementation of agricultural development programmes. The council is to be comprised of senior representatives of the ministries involved in agricultural development.

2. In order to encourage the farmers to be self-reliant, price support policies should be provided at appropriate times. However, the production subsidies must be provided on a selective basis. This has been done in the case of paddy and tobacco.

3. A policy of extension programmes needs to be formulated whereby the roles and functions of agencies are clearly outlined and demarcated to avoid overlapping of functions.

Fig.1 Schematic Presentation of Extension Methods Practiced on TOT in Malaysia

Transmission Transmission

Feedback Feedback

Research- RRIM Extension Adoption MARDI FOA Group Farmers PORIM RISDA Farmers’ Association UPM FELDA Individual Farmer DOF FELCRA

DVS MADA KADA

AbbreviationsMARDI= Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development InstitutePORIM= Palm Oil Research Institute of MalaysiaUPM= University of Agriculture MalaysiaDOF= Department of FisheriesDVS= Department of Veterinary ServicesFOA= Farmers’ Organization AuthorityRISDA= Rubber Industry Smallholders Development AuthorityFELDA= Federal Land Development AuthorityFELCRA= Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation AuthorityMADA= Muda Agricultural Development AuthorityKADA= Kemubu Agricultural Development Authority