Eoc Strategic Plan

prepared by the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

of the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

Strategic Plan For The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation SystemApril, 2005

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations NSTC Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

STRATEGIC PLAN FOR THE U.S. INTEGRATED EARTH OBSERVATION SYSTEM

The National Science and Technology Council

The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), a cabinet level council, is the principal means for the President to

coordinate science, and technology policies across the Federal Government. NSTC acts to coordinate the diverse parts of the

Federal research and development enterprise.

An important objective of the NSTC is the establishment of clear national goals for Federal science and technology investments

in areas ranging from information technologies and health research to improving transportation systems and strengthening

fundamental research. This council prepares research and development strategies that are coordinated across Federal

agencies to form an investment package that is aimed at accomplishing multiple national goals.

To obtain additional information regarding the NSTC, contact the NSTC Executive Secretariat at (202) 456-6101

The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) is one of four committees under the NSTC. It is charged with

improving coordination among federal agencies involved in environmental and natural resources research and development,

establishing a strong link between science and policy, and developing a federal environment and natural resources research

and development strategy that responds to national and international issues.

To obtain additional information regarding the CENR, contact the CENR Executive Secretariat at (202) 482-5921.

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations was chartered by the CENR for the purpose of developing the Strategic

Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, and to provide U.S. contributions to the Global Earth Observation

System of Systems (GEOSS). The Interagency Working Group’s charter expired in December, 2004, and the working group has

been replaced with a standing subcommittee under CENR, the United States Group on Earth Observations (US GEO).

To obtain additional information regarding the US GEO, contact the US GEO Executive Secretariat at (202) 482-5921.

Proper citation of this document is as follows:

CENR/IWGEO. 2005. Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth

Observation System, National Science and Technology Council Committee

on Environment and Natural Resources, Washington, DC.

For additional copies or information, please contact:

CENR Executive Secretariat

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

1401 Constitution Ave., N.W.

HCHB Room 5810

Washington, DC 20230

Telephone: 202-482-5921

Fax: 202-408-9674

E-mail: [email protected]

This report is also available via the World Wide Web at

http://www.ostp.gov

http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov

mailto:[email protected]?subject=Comments%20From%20the%20U.S.%20Strategic%20Plan:%20

http://www.ostp.gov




April 6, 2005

Dear Colleague:

On February 16, 2005, 55 countries endorsed a 10-year plan to develop and implement the Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) for the purpose of achieving comprehensive, coordinated, and sustained observations of the Earth system. GEOSS will allow scientists and policy makers in many different countries to design, implement and operate integrated Earth observing systems in a compatible, value-enhanced way. It will link existing satellites, buoys, weather stations, and other observing instruments that are already demonstrating value around the globe and support the development of new observational capabilities where required.

The U.S. contribution to GEOSS is the Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS). IEOS will meet our country’s need for high-quality, global, sustained information on the state of the Earth as a basis for policy and decision making in every sector of our society. In many areas, observations are already being collected. In others, observational gaps will be identified and assessed to determine if their value outweighs the investment required to fill them.

This strategic plan for IEOS is organized around nine initial societal benefit areas and six near-term opportunity areas. These provide a working framework for prioritizing actions and addressing critical gaps that maximize return on investments. The plan represents eighteen months of work by the seventeen federal agencies represented on the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations (IWGEO), which has now been formally established as the Group on Earth Observation (US GEO), a standing Subcommittee reporting to the National Science and Technology Council’s (NSTC) Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR).

The breadth and scope of the plan is unprecedented, and much work remains to realize the full potential of our Nation’s investment in Earth observations. The exemplary leadership of the US GEO will ensure continued excellence in the IEOS and maximize U.S. contributions to the GEOSS.

Sincerely,

John H. Marburger, III Director

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT NATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20502

Grant AufderhaarDepartment of Defense

Ron BirkNational Aeronautics and Space Administration

Wanda FerrellDepartment of Energy

John FilsonUnited States Geological Survey

Gary FoleyEnvironmental Protection Agency

Mary GantNational Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

David HalpernOffice of Science and Technology Policy

Len HirschSmithsonian Institution

John JonesNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Camille MittelholtzDepartment of Transportation

Raymond MothaDepartment of Agriculture

Kenneth PeelCouncil on Environmental Quality

Dan ReifsnyderDepartment of State

Jason Rothenberg / Erin WuchteOffice of Management and Budget

Tom SpenceNational Science Foundation

Frances WeatherfordTennessee Valley Authority

Ko BarrettUnited States Agency for International Development

Carla Sullivan (NOAA)Executive Secretary, IWGEO

INTERAGENCY WORKING GROUP ON EARTH OBSERVATIONS

OF THE

NSTC COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Ghassem Asrar, Co-ChairNational Aeronautics and Space Administration

Cliff Gabriel, Co-Chair*Office of Science and Technology Policy

Greg Withee, Co-ChairNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

*This position currently held by Teresa Fryberger, Office of Science and Technology Policy

Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iii

Introduction . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 1

Purpose, Vision and Goals .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 5

Links to International Activities . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 9

A Practical Focus for Earth Observations.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 13

Linking Observations to Societal Benefits . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17

Implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 27

Establishment of a U.S. Governance Structure .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 31

Policy, Technical and Fiscal Aspects of Implementation . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..35

Architecture for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..45

Integration of Earth Observation Systems .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 47

Next Steps in Implementation . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 53

Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 57

Appendices

1. Near-term Opportunities.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..59

2. Technical Report Summaries . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..69

3. List of Acronyms.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 142

4. Endnotes . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 145

5. Photo credits . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 148

6. National Science and Technology Council Committee on . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 149 Environment & Natural Resources


iiiiii

A global system of Earth observations would provide us with tools

to make national and global air quality forecasts, would help us to know in

advance when droughts would occur and how long they would last, and would

give us the capability to predict the outbreak of deadly diseases by tracking the

environmental factors that contribute to their spread. The availability of these

types of observational data would transform the way we relate and react to our

environment, providing significant societal benefits through improved human

health and well-being, environmental management, and economic growth.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Vision StatementEnable a healthy public, economy, and planet through an integrated,

comprehensive, and sustained Earth observation system.

These and other societal benefits depend on a sustained and integrated Earth

observation system underpinned by science and technology. Investments by

the United States and our foreign partners over the last decade have provided

unprecedented global views of the Earth as a set of complex, interacting


iv

processes. Despite these advances, our current system of observations is

fragmented and incomplete. Now, using a new integrated approach, we must

improve our Earth observation system so that we realize benefits for our people,

our economy and our planet.

The National Science and Technology Council’s Interagency Working Group

on Earth Observations has prepared this Strategic Plan as the first step in

the planning process towards the development and implementation of the

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS). In the context of broad,

crosscutting societal, scientific, and economic imperatives, and the missions

and priorities of the agencies participating in the Interagency Working Group on

Earth Observations, the approach for the development of the U.S. Integrated

Earth Observation System is to focus on specific and achievable societal

benefits. The task is to integrate the nation’s Earth observation capabilities to

address those imperatives and realize societal benefits. The planning process

will identify and integrate new capabilities on the

horizon. In addition, technology and capability gaps

must be identified and addressed before societal

benefits can be fully realized. By developing the

infrastructure to facilitate the integration and synthesis

of data and information products and services across

multiple domains, new value-added information/

knowledge solutions can be realized. New

information products, new tools, and new web-based

services will be developed to address current and

future applications.

1. Improve Weather Forecasting

2. Reduce Loss of Life and Property from Disasters

3. Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resource

4. Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, and Adapt to Climate Variability and Change

5. Support Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combat Land Degradation

6. Understand the Effect of Environmental Factors on Human Health and Well-Being

7. Develop the Capacity to Make Ecological Forecasts

8. Protect and Monitor Water Resources

9. Monitor and Manage Energy Resources


v

Nine societal benefit areas (see green box) provide a starting place for

discussion about what can be accomplished in several key areas where work is

underway, and where progress can be realized most quickly. In this Strategic

Plan, specific examples illustrate the link between observations and identified

benefits.

For decades, U.S. Federal agencies have been working with industry, academia,

local, state, national, regional and international partners to strengthen

cooperation in Earth observations. U.S. Federal agencies have developed and

funded a broad range of training and outreach activities to provide the expertise

in science, mathematics, and engineering needed to develop an integrated

Earth observation system. These information and K-12 programs that provide

useful information to our students and promote awareness and understanding

of the benefits of an integrated system are important components of these

efforts. The United States will continue to work with the nations of the world to

develop and link observation technologies for tracking environmental changes

in every part of the globe, thus enabling citizens and leaders to make more

informed decisions affecting their lives, environment, and economies.

The Earth is an integrated system. All the processes that influence conditions

on the Earth, whether ecological, biological, climatological, or geological, are

linked, and impact one another. Therefore, Earth observation systems are

strengthened when data collection and analysis are achieved in an integrated

manner. This Strategic Plan discusses the process for determining which

observations should be integrated and outlines four areas of integration: Policy

and Planning Integration, Specific and Issue Focused Integration, Scientific

Integration and Technical Integration.


vi

This plan recommends the establishment of a standing Earth observation

subcommittee under the auspices of the National Science and Technology

Council’s Committee on Environment and Natural Resources. This

Subcommittee will oversee the implementation of the principles and guidelines

described here. The Subcommittee will be charged with coordinating vastly

expansive science and technical activities to satisfy the identified societal

benefits.

This Strategic Plan addresses the policy, technical, fiscal, and societal benefit

components of an integrated Earth observation system.

The policy component identifies the aspects of Earth observations that will

be defined as mandates or guidelines at the Federal level. Additionally, this

policy component addresses data sharing and the identification of critical

observations, and recognizes the requirement for decisions based on sound

science and defined need.

The technical component describes the architectural approach, noting that

this system will build upon existing systems. This component of the plan

will also identify and document observation gaps and needs in the societal

benefits areas, and, where possible, note promising new capabilities and

technology developments that could address them.

The fiscal component points out the need for a process for identification

of agency budgetary priorities within the framework of the Office of

Management and Budget’s research and development investment criteria,

leading to overall prioritization of Earth observation activities.

The societal benefit approach provides a framework for discussing

improvements in multiple key areas. This component identifies broad

societal, scientific, and economic imperatives that transcend the specific

needs and mandates of individual participating agencies.

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vii

Observation for scientific purposes overlaps with and is deeply involved

in Earth observation for scientific benefit. Scientific priorities for Earth

Observation are developed by agencies with the help of the scientific

community through such means as National Research Council reports.

The functions of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System include data

collection, data management, data discovery, data access, data transport,

data archiving, processing, modeling, and quality control. Because no

comprehensive and integrated strategy for communicating all the current data

exists, enhanced data management is highlighted as both an overarching need

and a critical first near-term action. In addition, using tangible, achievable

examples, the Strategic Plan points out some near-term opportunities of the

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, and illustrates the observational

needs and societal benefits associated with improved observations for disaster

warning, global land cover, sea level, drought, and air quality.

Finally, the plan identifies next steps, recognizing the need for establishing an

organizational structure and describing the near-, mid- and long-term actions

that are needed to develop the common system architecture required for the

success of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System.

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will provide the nation and

the world a unique and innovative perspective on the complex, interacting

processes that make up our planet. This observation system should continue to

evolve to meet the changing needs of society and to take into account emerging

technologies and scientific advances. Implementing the U.S. Integrated

Earth Observation System represents an exciting opportunity to make lasting

improvements in U.S. capacity to deliver specific benefits to our people, our

economy and our planet.

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11

INTRODUCTION

A global system of Earth observations would provide us with tools

to make national and global air quality forecasts in the same way we currently

make weather forecasts. Think of the benefits to the millions of Americans

suffering from asthma.

A global system of Earth observations would help us know in

advance when droughts would occur and how long they would last. Think of the

benefits to the millions of farmers who could plan their planting and harvesting

with increased confidence.

A global system of Earth observations would give us the capability

to predict the outbreak of deadly diseases by tracking the environmental

factors that contribute to their spread. Think of the benefits to world health and

economies.

Realization of these and other benefits is dependent upon a sustained,

integrated, and constantly evolving Earth observation system underpinned by

science and technology. Today we have sophisticated tools to increase the

efficiency and effectiveness of Earth observations, unparalleled opportunities

for collecting and synthesizing the vast amount of data they provide, and the


2

expanded capability to deliver this data to end users

for practical applications.

Over the past decade, the investments made by the

United States and our international partners have

provided unprecedented global views of the Earth

as a set of complex, interacting systems. Despite

significant advances in our ability to measure and

understand the Earth, building a comprehensive,

integrated, and sustained Earth observation system

remains a major challenge. Future investments must

not only improve tools and capabilities, but must

focus on an integrated approach, serving a diverse

set of users and ultimately realizing a wide range of

benefits for our people, our economy, and our planet.

Recent progress in coordinated international planning

(box 1), building upon decades of scientific and technical successes, provides

a unique opportunity to plan and implement an integrated, comprehensive and

sustained Earth observation system.

Building on this progress, the Interagency Working Group on Earth

Observations has prepared this Strategic Plan as the first step towards the

development and implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System. This Strategic Plan provides a pathway towards the development of

the integrated system. The scientific and technical foundations for the vision

and implementation approach have been developed over the past year by

World Summit on Sustainable DevelopmentAugust 2002

G-8 Action Plan on Science and Technology for Sustainable DevelopmentJune 2003

Earth Observation Summit IJuly 2003

Group on Earth Observations Established August 2003

Interagency Working Group on Earth ObservationsEstablished August 2003

Earth Observation Summit IIApril 2004

G-8 Science Ministers MeetingApril 2004

G-8 Science & Technology Action Plan/Progress ReportJune 2004

Earth Observation Summit IIIFebruary 2005

Box 1: Recent international emphasis on Earth observations


3

Box 2: Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

Department of Commerce• National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration

• National Institute for Standards and Technology

Department of Defense• Air Force

• National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency

• Navy

• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Department of Energy

Department of Health & Human Services

• National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

Department of Homeland Security• Federal Emergency Management

Agency

Department of the Interior• US Geological Survey

Department of State

Department of Transportation

Environmental Protection Agency

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Science Foundation

Smithsonian Institution

Tennessee Valley Authority

U.S. Agency for International Development

U.S. Department of Agriculture• Agriculture Research Service

• U.S. Forest Service

White House Council on Environmental Quality

White House Office of Management and Budget

White House Office of Science and Technology Policy

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations Membership

the agencies of the Interagency Working

Group on Earth Observations (box 2)

(terms of reference in Appendix 1).

This document responds to the

guidance in the 2003 White House

Office of Science and Technology

Policy/Office of Management

and Budget FY2005 Interagency

Research and Development Priorities

memorandum, which charged the

National Science and Technology

Council to enhance capabilities to

assess and predict changes in key

environmental systems.

The National Science and Technology

Council, through its Committee on

Environment and Natural Resources, established the Interagency Working

Group on Earth Observations to develop and implement a coordinated,

multi-year plan for Earth observations. This Strategic Plan builds on existing

and evolving scientific and technical plans and is intended to improve our

understanding, monitoring and prediction of changes to the Earth system

(including atmosphere, land, fresh water, ocean, and ecosystems). We will

continue to refine the Plan as technology develops and as we achieve its goals.

To continue and sustain the efforts of the Interagency Working Group on

Earth Observations, this plan calls for the establishment of a standing Earth


4

observation subcommittee (in the National Science and Technology Council

and under the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources) with

responsibility to implement the principles and guidelines developed here. The

Subcommittee will continue to pull together vastly expansive science and

technical activities to satisfy the diverse societal benefits, leading towards an

integrated, comprehensive and sustained Earth observation system—the U.S.

Integrated Earth Observation System.


55

PURPOSE, VISION AND GOALS

A. Purpose

For decades, U.S. Federal agencies have been working with local, state,

national, regional and international partners to strengthen cooperation in Earth

observations. Building on this work, the U.S. Interagency Working Group on

Earth Observations prepared this Strategic Plan to provide a management,

planning, and resource allocation strategy for a U.S. Integrated Earth

Observation System. This strategy will provide the United States a framework

for participating in the international effort to develop a 10-year plan for a Global

Earth Observation System of Systems. This U.S. integrated system will be

based on new and existing Earth observation systems and capabilities, and

will be developed to meet national and international societal, scientific, and

economic imperatives.

Vision StatementEnable a healthy public, economy, and planet through an integrated,

comprehensive, and sustained Earth observation system.


6

B. Vision

A comprehensive Earth observation system will benefit people around the

world by improving our ability to monitor, understand, and predict changes

to the Earth. The United States will work with other nations to develop and

link observation technologies for tracking environmental changes in every

part of the globe, thus enabling citizens and leaders to make more informed

decisions affecting their lives, environment, and economies. This international

cooperation, along with new developments in monitoring, assessing, and

predicting environmental changes, will enable development of capabilities to

predict droughts, prepare for weather emergencies and other natural hazards,

plan and protect crops, manage coastal areas and fisheries, and monitor air

quality, to name but a few direct benefits that affect our economic prosperity

and quality of life.

C. Goals for U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

To accomplish the purpose and vision of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System, the agencies will:

Identify current and evolving requirements in the full range of societal

benefits.

Prioritize investments, including for new requirements, as necessary.

Utilize available and/or develop new technologies, instruments, systems,

and capabilities to meet the identified requirements and priorities.

Streamline and sustain existing Earth observation systems that are

necessary to achieve societal benefits.

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7

Establish U.S. policies for Earth observations and data management, and

continue U.S. policies of open access to observations, encouraging other

countries to do likewise.

Expand existing governmental partnerships at local, state, regional,

tribal and Federal levels, and develop new long-term partnerships with

industry, academia, the K-12 education community, non-governmental, and

international organizations that further the realization of these strategic

goals.

Develop human and institutional capacity to enable the translation of

observations into societal benefits.

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99

LINKS TO INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

International cooperation in Earth observations has already

resulted in benefits greater than could be achieved by individual nations

acting alone. The international scientific community, working together

within key international organizations (such as the World Meteorological

Organization and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission), has

improved understanding of environmental phenomena. Environmental

observations and science are international in scope and in the very

nature of their activity. International cooperation is a prerequisite for their

success. Recognizing this, ministers from 34 nations and representatives from

25 international organizations met at the first Earth Observation Summit in July

2003. This meeting resulted in an international effort to develop a Global Earth

Observation System of Systems.

This international effort emphasizes the importance of capacity building,

as information from Earth observations is critical for developing as well as

developed nations. Building capacity is integral to a global implementation

strategy, which includes ensuring full utilization of the data. Growing

world populations with expanding economies will require access to Earth


10

observations for a wide range of societal, scientific, and economic needs. The

development of new systems will contribute to the gross domestic product of

countries. International contributions are also essential for completing the data

sets needed to address important U.S. national issues.

The development of this Strategic Plan addresses the first goal of the

Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations and serves as the initial

step towards the development and implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth

Observation System. A parallel ongoing goal of the interagency group is to

formulate the U.S. position and input to the intergovernmental Group on Earth

Observations (GEO) and the development of the Global Earth Observation

System of Systems (GEOSS).

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will also promote international

capacity building, and the development of the U.S. Plan is a key element in

formulating the U.S. contributions to the GEOSS.

An example of international cooperation on observations can be found in the

ongoing development of a global system to monitor our oceans. For over a

decade, concerted national and international efforts have taken place during

the development of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), which is

being conducted under the auspices of UNESCO’s International Oceanographic

Commission, the World Meteorological Organization, the United Nations

Environment Programme, and the International Council for Science. The

Integrated Ocean/Coastal Observing System (IOOS) is the primary U.S.

component of GOOS.


11

The International Polar Year (IPY) 2007-2008 is an additional example of

an ongoing initiative being planned that will complement the global Earth

observation effort. This international multidisciplinary campaign of polar

observations, research, and analysis follows in the tradition of three international

science endeavors during the last 125 years (IPY 1882-1883; IPY 1932-1933;

IGY 1957-1958), when nations around the world united to advance scientific

discovery in ways that single countries or scientists could not do alone.

IPY is a rapidly growing suite of collaborative activities focused on evaluating

the status and current rate of change of both natural and human systems of the

polar regions, and understanding the causes of those changes.


1313

A PRACTICAL FOCUS FOR EARTH OBSERVATIONS

Our approach for developing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System is to focus on specific and achievable societal benefits and to link U.S.

efforts to international activities.

Based on discussions about the needs and priorities

of the agencies participating in the Interagency

Working Group on Earth Observations, nine societal

benefit areas (box 3) were chosen as the preliminary

focus. This list was then vetted and approved by the

National Science and Technology Council Committee

on Environment and Natural Resources. This list is

not in order of priority, nor is it meant to be exhaustive

or static. It is intended to provide a framework for

discussion about improvements in several key areas

where work is underway. These benefit areas are

described further in the next section of this document

(and detailed in Appendix 2).Box 3: Preliminary set of societal benefit areas

1. Improve Weather Forecasting

2. Reduce Loss of Life and Property from Disasters

3. Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resource

4. Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, and Adapt to Climate Variability and Change

5. Support Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combat Land Degradation

6. Understand the Effect of Environmental Factors on Human Health and Well-Being

7. Develop the Capacity to Make Ecological Forecasts

8. Protect and Monitor Water Resources

9. Monitor and Manage Energy Resources


14

In the past, individual government agencies sought to implement and optimize

their observation systems to meet their specific needs and mandates. The U.S.

Integrated Earth Observation System transcends individual agency perspectives

and focuses the activity on broad societal, scientific, and economic imperatives.

A. A Healthy Public—Societal Imperatives

A growing world population, projected to increase by roughly 50% in the next

50 years before leveling off,1 will place increasing demands on crucial resources

like food and clean water and air. Populations and economic activities are

shifting from rural areas to urban centers, many in low-lying coastal regions or

seismically active zones. In the United States, more than half of the population

lives within 50 miles of our coasts,2 areas that are particularly vulnerable to

storm surges and flooding. We rely upon coastal regions for healthy fisheries,

and reliable transport and navigation. Increased dependence on infrastructure

networks (roads, power grids, oil and gas pipelines) intensifies the potential

vulnerability of more developed societies to impacts from natural disasters.

Another potential health-related benefit from improved observations concerns

the quality of our air. Despite dramatic improvements in air quality in the

United States over the last 30 years, over 100 million people in the U.S.

still live in counties with pollution levels that exceed National Ambient Air

Quality Standards (NAAQS), posing potential health problems.3 Improved

understanding of the complex workings of Earth systems will help us protect

society and manage our resources and infrastructure in a more efficient and

effective way.


15

B. A Healthy Economy—Economic Imperatives

In pure economic terms, studies show that national institutions that provide

weather, climate, public health, and water services to their citizens contribute an

estimated $20-$40 billion dollars each year to their national economies.4 In

the United States, weather- and climate-sensitive industries, both directly and

indirectly, account for as much as 1/3 of our nation’s GDP—$2.7 trillion5—

ranging from agriculture, energy, finance, insurance, transportation, and real

estate, to retail and wholesale trade, and manufacturing. Economists have

quantified the benefits of improved El Niño forecasts to be an estimated $265-

300 million annually, throughout El Niño, normal and La Niña years. Likewise,

annual benefits in a small Northwest Coho salmon fishery are estimated at

$250,000 to $1 million.6 The return on our investments for Earth observations

has brought great benefits to the general public. However, we can do much more.

C. A Healthy Planet—Scientific Imperatives

Improved management of resources and forecasting of Earth system changes

cannot be achieved without a much more comprehensive and detailed

understanding of the Earth. We are faced with a number of pressing science

questions, such as:

How are all of Earth’s “life support systems” interrelated?

How do geophysical phenomena and biogeochemical phenomena relate?

How do social and economic factors interrelate with Earth system changes?

These questions call for an interdisciplinary Earth science approach to provide

useful answers. We need to know how the parts fit together and function as a

whole.

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16

The multiple components and processes of the Earth’s atmosphere, ocean

and land surfaces operate interactively, as a complex, dynamic system. More

importantly, the multiple “feedback loops” operating among component

processes of the hydrosphere, geosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere

determine the state of the Earth system at any given time. In order to take the

“pulse of the planet,” we must establish a valid end-to-end process that will

take us from observations to user-related products. Scientific needs for this

end-to-end process require that we:

integrate observation, data management, and information delivery systems,

quantify environmental processes by direct or indirect observations,

improve coupled Earth system models that integrate the best state of

knowledge,

assimilate the Earth observation data streams into models (eventually in

real time),

test our Earth system models over varying time and spatial scales against

observations and the geologic/environmental record,

understand the drivers of climate variability and change, the rates of

change and the possible precursors to climate variability and change,

understand and explain the forces, processes, mechanisms, and feedbacks

underlying observed patterns, and

communicate that scientific understanding to all stakeholders.

Scientific research and observation lead to the Earth System Models, which are

the starting point of the observations-to-societal benefits paradigm developed in

the next section.

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1717

LINKING OBSERVATIONS TO SOCIETAL BENEFITS

Connections between societal benefits and Earth observations

must be clear to both decisions makers and the general public. In the following

sections, we illustrate the expected linkage between observations and societal

benefits in nine specific areas.7 In selected cases, we illustrate how this linkage

is achieved today.

Figure 1 depicts the linkage and flow of information from observations to

societal benefits. Although the focus is on achievable specifics, the approach

Figure 1: Linking Earth Observations to Societal Benefits

Predictions

Observations

DATA

Decision SupportSocietalBenefits

Policy Decisions

ManagementDecisions

PersonalDecisions

Earth System ModelsWeatherClimateAtmosphereOther...

Earth Observation Systems

Remotely-sensedIn situ

On-going feedback to optimizevalue and reduce gaps


18

includes using a common system architecture, and ensuring current and

evolving systems are interoperable and the solutions can be easily expanded,

extended, and/or replicated to address future challenges.

A. Improve Weather Forecasting8

Weather is an important area and vital to the other societal benefits. Weather

observation, along with the associated national and international data

management mechanisms, is probably the most mature observation system

example in wide use today. The current weather system provides billions of

dollars in value to the nation in areas such as transportation safety, agricultural

productivity, and energy management. Enhanced observations would greatly

facilitate the weather mission in the U.S., as well as supply crosscutting

information for the user requirements in the other societal benefit areas. For

example, high-resolution lower-atmosphere global wind measurements from a

spaceborne optical sensor would dramatically improve a critical input for global

prediction models, improving long-term weather forecasting.

B. Reduce Loss of Life and Property from Disasters9

Natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides, floods, wildfires,

extreme weather, coastal hazards, sea ice and space weather, plus major

pollution events, impose a large burden on society. In the US, the economic

cost of disasters averages $20 billion dollars per year.10 Disasters are a major

cause of loss of life and property. The recent California wildfires and the

Denali Alaska earthquake underline the importance of preparedness, planning,


19

and response. Our ability to predict, monitor, and respond to natural and

technological hazards is a key consideration in reducing the impact of disasters.

Sensors onboard geostationary satellites known as GOES supply observations

used to detect and monitor forest fires every half-hour for the entire Western

Hemisphere, including remote areas. This allows early detection of fires and

indicates whether or not they are intensifying. During the 2001 Viejas fire in San

Diego, the GOES observation product recognized the fire 15 minutes after the

estimated ignition time. This product is available within minutes (http://cimss.

ssec.wisc.edu/goes/burn/wfabba.html). To extend the fire monitoring coverage

beyond the Western Hemisphere, data from the Terra and Aqua research

satellites and other international polar orbiting satellites, are combined with

GOES data to create a global fire map. Polar orbiting satellite data are currently

used to create active fire maps for the U.S. (http://activefiremaps.fs.fed.us/).

Fire incident maps, generated daily for use by firefighters on the ground,

require higher-resolution (usually airborne) infrared imagery, superimposed on

topography of the area.

C. Protect and Monitor Our Ocean Resource11

Ocean resources account for a significant portion of the U.S. economy, and

recent estimates indicate that coastal areas provide 28 million jobs, millions

of dollars in goods and services, and tourist destinations for over 180 million

Americans per year. Our ability to observe and manage coastal and marine

resources will continue to provide these key benefits to society. Managing

ocean resources requires accurate information from an integrated observation

system to allow for detection and prediction of the causes and consequences

of changes in marine and coastal ecosystems, watersheds and non-living

resources.

http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/burn/wfabba.html

http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/burn/wfabba.html

http://activefiremaps.fs.fed.us/


20

The recommendations of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy (2004) (see

http://www.oceancommission.gov/documents/prepub_report/welcome.html),

the U.S. Ocean Action Plan (see http://ocean.ceq.gov/), White Water to Blue

Water (see http://www.state.gov/g/oes/rls/fs/2002/15624.htm) and other

reports and studies endorse an ecosystem approach and/or a watershed

approach for observation systems. These systems should be able to assess and

predict phenomena such as impacts of events like coastal storms, oil spills,

pollution, and other activities such as fishing, recreational activities, marine

transportation, coastal activities and ocean drilling/exploration. Observations

are needed for a wide range of physical, biological, chemical, geological and

atmospheric variables within U.S. coastal regions, islands and territories, and

open ocean regions. Coordination of this information obtained at various time

and space scales, and from existing and planned networks, along with indicators,

models and decision support systems can provide great benefits to society.

D. Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, and Adapt to Climate Variability and Change12

The Earth’s climate is a dynamic system undergoing continuous change on

seasonal, annual, decadal and longer timescales. Scientific evidence suggests

that a complex interplay of natural and human-related forces may explain

such climate variability and change. Better preparation for any impacts due

to climate variability and change requires better understanding of its causes

and effects. According to the National Academy of Sciences, improved

global observation is a fundamental need for filling knowledge gaps in climate

science. Noting that climate models are based on observations and that

“the observation system available today is a composite of observations that

neither provides the information nor the continuity in data needed to support

measurements of climate variables,” the Academy called for creation of a long-

term observation system able to fill such existing data gaps.13 In addition, a

http://www.oceancommission.gov/documents/prepub_report/welcome.html

http://ocean.ceq.gov/

http://www.state.gov/g/oes/rls/fs/2002/15624.htm


21

better understanding of greenhouse gas accounting and carbon management

would greatly facilitate decision-making related to sustainable development of

terrestrial, oceanic and atmospheric resources.

The climate observation system, including the associated data management

system, and the community of users constitute a climate information

system. Climate data users include government agencies (Federal, state,

local), private industries (electric utilities and gas industries, tourism, shipping,

agriculture, fishing, insurance/reinsurance, etc.), universities, recreational

organizations, and non-governmental organizations. Usage is diverse, including

research and operational applications, policy making and coordinated planning

for climate change adaptation and mitigation, as well as decision-making by

businesses, organizations, and individuals. Coordination of acquisition of

information, and support for its application, is a required ongoing activity of

Federal agencies that participate in the Climate Change Science Program and

the Climate Change Technology Program, under the Committee on Environment

and Natural Resources of the National Science and Technology Council.

E. Support Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combat Land Degradation14

Food production is a national priority and it is characterized by fluctuations

related to climate conditions, land management practices, agricultural

technologies, market forces and investment. Seasonal and longer-term trends

of temperature and rainfall patterns are a great influence on agricultural, desert

and range, and forestry sectors. Success depends on farmers, ranchers, and

foresters adapting to seasonal or longer-term changes, based on receiving

timely and accurate information for decisions. Drought and extreme weather

decrease food production, foster desertification, and harm forests. Improved

observations, models, and predictions of critical parameters (such as weather,


22

salinity, erosion and soil loss, fires, pests and invasive species) can help mitigate

these effects on farms, ranges, and forests. The industry that provides food to

America is global in nature, so having global knowledge of the environmental

conditions that affect worldwide food supply is important to all Americans.

F. Understand the Effect of Environmental Factors on Human Health and Well-Being15

All the components of this integrated Earth observation system contribute

to improving human health and well-being. Researchers, service providers,

policy makers, and the public currently use Earth observations to understand

environmental factors in order to make decisions and take actions. These

decisions and actions help reduce the impact of disasters, protect and manage

natural resources, adapt to and mitigate climate variation, support sustainable

agriculture, forecast weather, protect areas valued for recreational, religious,

or aesthetic purposes, and help prevent disease/dysfunction influenced by

environmental exposures. In the near future, the Earth observations will feed

into real-time measurements of environmental factors and will further enhance

the ability to predict changes in these important indicators.

The ability to predict disease emergence and intensity has long been a dream

of public health workers, economic planners and ordinary citizens. For those

diseases that are influenced by environmental factors, the development of

predictive models will open the door to the possibility that if one could link risk

of disease with certain variables, one could eventually apply these models to

predict occurrence and possibly control or prevent these diseases in human

populations.


23

Enhanced Earth observations that lead to better air quality data and the

ability to predict air pollution episodes would contribute to improvements in

human health via: reduced incidence of acute attacks and deaths from chronic

respiratory diseases such as asthma; fewer air pollution-related emergency

room visits; and fewer days absent from school or work. Air pollution affects

the environment in many ways that ultimately impact on our health and well-

being: by reducing visibility; damaging crops, forests, and buildings; acidifying

lakes and streams; and stimulating the growth of algae in estuaries. Rapid

development and urbanization around the globe has created air pollution that

threatens people everywhere, as air pollution can travel great distances across

oceans and national boundaries.

G. Develop the Capacity to Make Ecological Forecasts16

The primary goal of ecological forecasting is to predict the effects of biological,

chemical, physical, and human induced pressures on ecosystems and

their components at a range of scales and over time, given a certain set of

assumptions. Examples of such pressures include extreme natural events,

climate variability and change, land and resource use, pollution, invasive

species, and human/wildlife diseases. Earth observations and relevant

modeling tools help identify key cause-effect relationships. Once certain cause-

effect relationships are established, the goal then is to use Earth observation

information to develop management strategies and options to reverse declining

trends, reduce risks, and protect important ecological resources and associated

processes. Such an approach provides critical support to long-term economic

growth and sustainable development. The use of ecological indicators and

forecasting will move us toward sustainable management of goods and services.


24

Ecological forecasting requires the acquisition of a wide range of environmental

data, as well as development of models. As an example, Lifemapper (www.

lifemapper.org) is an Internet and leading-edge information technology model

that retrieves plant and animal records from the world’s natural history

museums. Lifemapper analyzes the data, computes the ecological profile of

each species, maps where the species has been found and predicts where each

species could potentially live. Lifemapper has been used to model and simulate

the spread of emerging diseases, plant and animal pests, or invasive species

of plants and animals and their effects on natural resources, agricultural crops

and human populations. Environmental scientists have modeled and predicted

the effects of local, regional and global climate change on Earth’s species of

plants and animals. Land planners and policy-makers have used Lifemapper to

identify the highest priority areas for biodiversity conservation.

H. Protect and Monitor Water Resources17

The availability and quality of freshwater for humans are critical factors

influencing the health and livelihood of people across the nation. Over one

billion people in the world are currently without safe drinking water. Continued

growth in human populations and water use, continued degradation of water

supplies by contamination, and greater recognition of the needs for freshwater

in order to support critical ecosystem functions could contribute to increasing

scarcity and conflict over water supplies. By providing more complete and

detailed water information and forecasts, decision-makers and the public could

make better decisions on water supplies and activities that affect humans,

plants, animals, and ecosystems.

The Great Lakes hold one-fifth of the Earth’s freshwater and are one of the

Nation’s most important aquatic resources from an economic, geographic,

international, ecological, and societal perspective. The Great Lakes continually

http://www.lifemapper.org

http://www.lifemapper.org


25

face extremes in natural phenomena such as storms, erosion, high waves,

high and low water levels, and climate variability, all of which influence water

quality and efforts to restore habitat. Population growth in the region will

continue to increase stressors on the Great Lakes, adding to the complexity

of management issues. Enhanced and increased observations and systems

coupled with indicators, models and decision support tools such as the Great

Lakes Observation System (http://www.glc.org/glos/pdf/glosbrochure-web.

pdf) will foster restoration activities including wetlands banking, rehabilitation

of Brownfields sites, restoration of coastal wetlands and other habitats,

establishment of protected areas, use of dredged material to enhance fish

and wildlife habitat, improvement of water quality, fisheries management, and

prevention and control of invasive species.

I. Monitor and Manage Energy Resources18

Energy management and monitoring are compelling needs throughout the

world. Energy availability, use, and cost vary regionally. Focused efforts with

improved Earth observations can help to optimize decision-making, and help

provide needed energy supply, while protecting the environment and human

health. For example, it has been estimated that improving weather forecast

accuracy is critical for timely, safe, and cost effective transport of energy

resources, as described in the newspaper excerpt below.19

“The annual cost of electricity could decrease by at least $1 billion if the accuracy

of weather forecasts improved 1 degree Fahrenheit… [The Tennessee Valley

Authority] generates 4.8% of the USA’s electricity. Forecasts over its 80,000

square miles have been wrong by an average of 2.35 degrees the last 2 years,

fairly typical of forecasts nationwide. Improving that to within 1.35 degrees would

save TVA as much as $100,000 a day, perhaps more. Why? On Monday at 5:30

a.m., TVA’s forecast for today called for an average four-city high of 93 degrees

in Memphis, Nashville, Knoxville and Chattanooga, rising from 71 degrees at 6

http://www.glc.org/glos/pdf/glosbrochure-web.pdf

http://www.glc.org/glos/pdf/glosbrochure-web.pdf


26

a.m. TVA has scheduled today’s power generation based on this forecast and

will bring on line a combination of hydro, nuclear, coal, wind, natural gas and oil

plants as temperatures rise. It will buy wholesale electricity if that costs less

than generating its own power. Gas plants are more expensive to operate than

nuclear or coal, so TVA will fire up its ‘peakers’ only when it expects demand to

be very high. If the average temperature comes in 1 degree hotter, rising to 94,

TVA’s customers will demand 450 more megawatts. There would be no time

to fire up an idle gas plant, and the cost of last-minute wholesale electricity

could skyrocket. ‘There are times when electricity is $80 (per megawatt hour)

a day ahead and $800 to $8,000 24 hours later,’ says Robert Abboud of RGA

Labs, which helps utilities with complex decisions. On the other hand, if the

four-city temperature comes in a degree cooler than forecast, TVA may have

fired up a plant unnecessarily, or bought electricity a day in advance that will

go wasted. Temperature is most important, but utilities can also benefit from

accurate forecasts of cloud cover and humidity...”


2727

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE U.S. INTEGRATED EARTH

OBSERVATION SYSTEM

The development of an integrated, comprehensive and sustained

Earth observation system is a challenge that requires a structured plan for

development. Figure 2 illustrates the U.S. approach to implementation, which

begins with the clear definition of the vision (see page 5). After considering the

missions and priorities of the participating agencies, the Interagency Working

Group on Earth Observations identified nine societal benefit areas. Given the

vision and the societal benefits that the system will address, the next steps

include definition of the functional and performance requirements (box 4)

necessary to guide the development of the integrated system architecture. The

final step identifies the existing and planned systems to be implemented in the

U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System architecture.


28

Interface with the user community and the decision support

systems they use (requirements specification)

Collect Earth observations (remote and in situ)

Manage data (includes data archiving, access, processing,

modeling, communications and delivery)

Sustain and enhance capacity (includes research, training, and

development)

Deliver information (tailored to the needs of the user

community)

»

»

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»

»

Box 4: Functional requirements.

In following this approach for implementation it is important to have a clear

understanding of the scope of the U.S. effort for developing an Integrated Earth

Observation System. The following bullets describe the partnerships that will be

critical for the success of the U.S. effort.

Figure 2: Approach to Implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

Systems

Architecture

Requirements

Societal Benefits

Vision Impl

emen

tatio

n


29

The U.S. effort will be multi-disciplinary. It will take into consideration the

interaction among multiple science disciplines, including physical, life and

social sciences.

The U.S. effort will be interagency. It will build upon existing systems and

strategies to develop a framework for identifying gaps and priorities.

The U.S. effort will link across all levels of government. The stakeholder

capacity to use assessment and decision support tools for decision-

making will be supported through education, training, research, and

outreach. Building domestic user capacity is a key consideration.

The U.S. effort will be fully integrated into a coordinated international

effort. Environmental observations and science are international in scope

and international cooperation is imperative both to the U.S. and global

plans.

The U.S. effort will encourage broad participation. Many entities (public,

private, and international) acquire and use Earth observations. The scope

of the integrated Earth observation system will encompass the needs of

these entities including the commercial Earth observation data providers,

value-added intermediaries, and commercial users.

»

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3131

ESTABLISHMENT OF A U.S. GOVERNANCE

STRUCTURE

The joint OSTP/OMB guidance memorandum dated June

6, 2003, gave the National Science and Technology Council, through its

respective agencies, the charge to “develop and implement a coordinated,

multi-year plan to enhance data time series, minimize data gaps, and

maximize the quality, integrity, and utility of the data for short-term and long-

term applications.” To this end, a standing Earth observation subcommittee

of the Council’s Committee on Environment and Natural Resources will

be established. This Subcommittee, the United States Group on Earth

Observations (US GEO), will develop strategies for efficient and streamlined

operations for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System and will further the

work accomplished by the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

in leading and coordinating the implementation of this multi-year U.S.

plan on Earth observations. This subcommittee will have responsibility for

periodic assessment of the multi-year U.S. plan, as well as annual reports

to the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources on progress and

recommendations.


32

Consistent with the President’s Management Agenda, Federal research and

development investments for an integrated and sustained system of Earth

observations will be managed as a portfolio of interconnected interagency

activities, taking into account the quality, relevance and performance of each

project. Working with the external stakeholder community, including industry,

academia, and state, local, regional and tribal governments (consistent with the

Federal Advisory Committee Act), this strategy will address not only planning,

management and prospective assessment, but will also seek retrospective

assessment of whether investments have been well directed, efficient and

productive.

The agencies, through the Subcommittee (US GEO), will recommend priorities

for investment for near-term, mid-term and long-term activities, recognizing

that we may develop new requirements in addition to those already identified

as critical for the societal benefit areas, and allowing for maximum flexibility

as the system develops and coordination needs change. In addition, the

Subcommittee will, over time, assemble its own benchmarks and metrics to

assess the plan’s relevance, quality and performance across societal benefits

areas. The broad overlap of the societal benefits and the various agencies’

missions is illustrated in Table 1, depicting agencies as users, providers, or both

user and provider of relevant Earth observations.

The Subcommittee will continue to formulate U.S. positions and inputs into

the Global Earth Observation System of Systems, taking into account the full

range of U.S. policies and interests, and the requirements of the widest range

of decision-makers, researchers, service-providers, the public, and other

stakeholders worldwide.


33

It is clear from the data presented in Table 1 that a coordinated interagency

approach to the Integrated Earth Observation System is imperative. The

participating agencies have distributed responsibilities and requirements across

the nine societal benefit areas. A sustained interagency effort will ensure that

effectiveness and efficiency in achieving these benefits is maximized.

U.S. Agencies Related To Societal Benefit Areas

U.S. AGENCIESTABLE KEY

DOC/

NIST

DOC/

NOAA

DOD

DOE

DHHS

/NIE

HSDH

S/FE

MA

DOI/U

SGS

DOS

DOT

EPA

NASA

NSF

Tenn

esse

e Va

lley

A.

Smith

soni

anUS

AID

USDA

P = primarily provides data

U = primarily uses data

B = uses/provides data

Societal Benefit Areas

Weather B B U U U U B U B U U U B B

Disasters U P B U U U B U U U B B U U U U

Oceans B B B U U B U U B B B U U

Climate B U B U U B U U B B B U B B

Agriculture U P U U U P U B P B U B B

Human Health U P P B U U B P B U B

Ecology U B B B U B B B B B B B B

Water U B B B U U B B U B B B U B U

Energy U P B U U B P U B P U B U U

Table 1: U.S. Agencies as primarily provider, primarily user, or both provider and user of Earth observation data associated with the identified societal benefit areas.


3535

POLICY, TECHNICAL AND FISCAL ASPECTS OF

IMPLEMENTATION

Policy Aspects of Implementation

The strategy for implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

has three components: policy, technical and fiscal. The policy component

identifies the aspects of Earth observations that will be defined as mandates or

guidelines at the Federal level. Additionally, this policy component addresses

data sharing and the identification of critical observations, and recognizes

the requirement for decisions based on sound science, defined needs, and

available options. The best way to generate knowledge is through science. The

critical observations are the observations essential for sound science and

decision-making, and are best determined through stakeholder involvement.

A. Data Sharing

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will provide full and open

access to all data in accordance with OMB Circular A-130. All data (subject to

applicable national security controls and proprietary rights), shall be available

for the operational, research, commercial, and academic communities with

minimum time delay and at minimal cost. Commercial observation systems


36

and observation data represent valuable national assets for the U.S. Integrated

Earth Observation System. We encourage continued development of enhanced

capabilities to meet evolving requirements in support of achieving societal

benefits and to fulfill the intent of the U.S. Commercial Remote-sensing Space

Policy (25 April 2003) and other applicable policies.

B. Critical Observations

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will focus on collecting

critical observations—elements considered of sufficient importance to

mandate their collection based on their societal, economic, and scientific

imperatives. Obtaining the appropriate metadata (data about the data, such

as its quality and how it was acquired) will be an additional focus, enabling

the effective use of all data collected. To illustrate this point, Table 2 shows

a limited cross section of various observations and their relative level of

importance to each societal benefit area. This table is not comprehensive

and is intended only to provide a snapshot of overlapping benefits of selected

observations.


37

Benefit Areas Related To Earth Observations


TABLE KEY

Wea

ther

Disa

ster

s

Ocea

ns

Clim

ate

Agric

ultu

re

Hum

an H

ealth

Ecol

ogy

Wat

er

Ener

gy

H = High level of importance to benefit area

M = Medium level of importance to benefit area

L = Low level of importance to benefit area

Earth ObservationsNote: This list of observations is not meant to be

comprehensive

Land Elevation and Surface Deformation M H L L M M M H L

Land Use/Land Cover (Crops, Forests, Urban, etc.) M M L M H H H M M

Ecosystem Parameters (Health, Diversity, etc.) L L H H H M H M L

Fire (Detection, Extent, Severity) L H L L H H H L L

Soil Moisture M M L H H H M H L

Ice and Snow (Cover and Volume) M M M H M M M H M

Land and Sea Surface Temperature H H H H H H H M H

River Runoff (Volume, Sediment, etc.) L H H H H H H H H

Water Quality (Contamination, Spills, etc.) L H H L H H H M L

Sea Surface Height/Topography H H H H L M H M L

Ocean Current and Circulation M L H H L L H L L

Ocean Salinity L L H H L L H L L

Ocean Color (Chlorophyll, etc.) L L H L L H H L L

Atmospheric Constituents (Ozone, Greenhouse Gases, Black Carbon, Volcanic Ash and other Aerosols, etc.)

L H M H L H L H H

Atmospheric Profiles (Temperature, Pressure, Water Vapor) H H L H L M L L L

Wind Speed & Direction (Surface, Tropospheric, Stratospheric) H H H H M H M L L

Cloud Cover (Properties, Type, Height) H M M H M L L L L


38

Benefit Areas Related To Earth Observations


TABLE KEY

Wea

ther

Disa

ster

s

Ocea

ns

Clim

ate

Agric

ultu

re

Hum

an H

ealth

Ecol

ogy

Wat

er

Ener

gy

H = High level of importance to benefit area

M = Medium level of importance to benefit area

L = Low level of importance to benefit area

Earth ObservationsNote: This list of observations is not meant to be

comprehensive

Total and Clear Sky Radiative Flux H L M H H M M M H

Solar Irradiance L L L H L M M L L

Space Weather L H L L L M L L H

Precipitation H H M H H H H H H

Gravity, Magnetic Field, and Field Variations H H H H L L L H L

Space Geodesy: Terrestial Reference Frame and Earth Orientation H H H H H L M H L

Earthquake and volcanic activity L H L M L L L L L

Geology (bedrock and surficial) and soils L H L L M L M M M

Species (Occurrences, density, etc.) L M H H H H H M L

Table 2: Relative importance of an illustrative list of Earth observations to the identified societal benefit areas.

Technical Aspects of Implementation

The technical component describes the architectural approach, noting

that this system will be built upon existing and planned systems and will

identify and document observation gaps and needs in the societal benefits

areas. Currently, most of the data and information related to Earth observations

are encompassed within the U.S. National Spatial Data Infrastructure, and


39

integration of Earth observations will be implemented within that legal, policy,

and institutional framework. The technical implementation component will

establish the standards, protocols, and metadata for observation systems. The

strategy will also recommend the optimum operating environment and support

developing the associated human and institutional capacity.

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System builds upon current cooperation

efforts among existing observation systems (including but not limited to the

physical integration of observation systems on the same platform or at the

same ground site, and by sharing space platforms and observation towers on

the ground for various observations), processing systems, and networks, while

encouraging and accommodating new components. Across the processing

cycle from data collection to information production, participating systems

maintain their mandates, their national, regional and/or intergovernmental

responsibilities, including scientific activities, technical operations and

ownership.

For required new components, the Subcommittee (US GEO) will recommend

appropriate stewardship roles. The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System participants will coordinate with commercial, academic, and other

non-government organizations consistent with the Federal Advisory Committee

Act.

A. Interoperability/Protocols/Standards

Standards (including metadata standards) and protocols will be followed

for the successful implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation


40

System. These standards and protocols will address data and metadata access,

interoperability, processing, dissemination, and archiving.

Interoperability will focus primarily on interfaces, defining how system

components interface with each other and thereby minimizing any impact

on affected systems other than interfaces to the shared architecture. Since

interoperability agreements must be broad and sustainable, fewer agreements

accommodating many systems are preferred over many agreements

accommodating fewer systems.

To the maximum extent possible, interoperability agreements will be based on

non-proprietary standards. Tailoring of standards (profiles) will be specified

when standards are not sufficiently specific. Rather than defining new

specifications, system implementers will adopt standard specifications agreed

upon voluntarily and by consensus, with preference to formal international

standards such as those of the International Organization for Standardizations

(ISO).

B. Data and Information Assurance and Security

Services providing access to Earth observations data and products often

include significant requirements for assuring various aspects of security

and authentication. These range from authentication of user identity for

data with restricted access, to notification of copyright restrictions for data

not in the public domain, and to mechanisms for assurance that data are

uncorrupted. The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will promote

convergence on common standards for these various aspects.


41

C. Data and Information System Hardware/Software

New hardware capabilities will only be required to the extent that they fill a need

for a dedicated function that is not currently provided or anticipated. From

the overall system perspective, it is anticipated that several types of new or

refocused data and information “centers” are possible, as follows:

Archive centers to acquire, preserve, and provide long-term access to Earth

observation data.

Regional data centers to acquire and provide access to Earth observation

data collected in specific geographic regions. These centers often collect

a variety of physical, biological, and chemical ocean data that are used to

support scientific, public, and commercial interests in the region.

Data assembly centers to obtain Earth observation data and provide access

to it. They typically specialize in certain types of data, and often provide

quality control and data products in their area of expertise.

Modeling centers to procure and synthesize observational data to produce

products such as analyses, predictions, or hindcasts that may span a wide

range of spatial and temporal scales.

High-performance computing centers to process anticipated high-volumes

of data from next generation Earth observation systems.

Software capabilities are required to support the functions described elsewhere

in this document including data and metadata management, data access,

data transport, archive management, processing/modeling, quality control,

and geospatial information systems, among others. These crosscutting data

handling functions are in addition to software functions required to process

observations.

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42

D. Infrastructure/Bandwidth

The successful operation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will

rely directly on the provision of a communications infrastructure sufficient to

carry observations at sizes and rates ranging from point observations of a few

hundred bytes to thousands of gigabytes. As a part of the inventory process

that was begun by the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations, a

comprehensive sizing/timing study will be conducted to develop a multi-year

communications plan. The communications plan will include milestones for

rollouts of capability, including the infusion of next generation technology.

E. Human and Institutional Capacity

Support for developing human and institutional capacity is critical. The

identification of user requirements and capacity gaps for the U.S. Integrated

Earth Observation System should occur early in the implementation of the

plan. Capacity building efforts should build on existing local, regional, national

and international initiatives. Priorities include education, training, research and

outreach.

Education creates the pipeline yielding the next generation of scientists,

engineers, and technologists who will become the data providers, data users

and innovators of the future. Education and outreach are also important to:

ensure that decision makers at all levels understand the role of Earth

observations in achieving societal benefits, and

create a knowledgeable public that can engage policy makers in the

complex, difficult and critical decisions encountered that will be made

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The GLOBE program partnership20 offers an excellent example of an

international program with partners across technical, development, and

aid agencies around the world. This partnership is a worldwide hands-on,

primary and secondary school-based education and science program. The

program has delivered results globally by training teachers and engaging

primary and secondary level students in collection, observations, and analysis

of environmental data. Unique to this program is the involvement of students

around the world from both developed and developing nations where schools

had been difficult to access.

Fiscal Aspects of Implementation

Implementation of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System requires

specific prioritization of resources to ensure critical observation systems are

developed or sustained. Prioritization of near-term Earth observation activities

will be included in annual submissions to the Office of Management and Budget

and the Office of Science and Technology Policy. To implement this Strategic

Plan, the Subcommittee (US GEO) will be expected to identify budgetary

priorities within the framework of Office of Management and Budget’s research

and development investment criteria (quality, relevance, and performance).


4545

ARCHITECTURE FOR THE U.S. INTEGRATED EARTH

OBSERVATION SYSTEM

The necessary functions of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System include data collection, data management, data discovery, data access,

data transport, data archiving, processing, modeling, quality control, and

others. The development of the integrated system will be based on the following

key architectural principles:

Supports a broad range of implementation options (driven by user needs),

and incorporates new technology and methods;

Addresses planned, research, and operational observation systems required

for participants to make products, forecasts and related decisions;

Includes observation, processing, and disseminating capabilities interfaced

through interoperability specifications agreed and adhered to among all

participants;

Records and stores observations and products in clearly defined formats,

with metadata and quality indications to enable search and retrieval, and

archived as accessible data sets; and

Provides a framework for securing and sustaining the future continuity of

observations and the instigation of new observations.

Builds on existing systems and historical data, as well as existing

assessments of observational needs in the specified societal benefit areas.

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The Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework21 is a conceptual model that

defines a documented and coordinated structure for crosscutting businesses

and design developments in the government. The Subcommittee (US GEO) will

develop the architecture for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System in

accordance with the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework.

The integrated system architecture description will be a “living” document,

continuously revised under the direction of the governance process established,

to account for new and evolving requirements and capabilities to meet those

requirements.


4747

INTEGRATION OF EARTH OBSERVATION SYSTEMS

The Earth is an integrated system. Therefore, all the

processes that influence conditions on the Earth are linked,

and impact one another. A subtle change in one process can

produce an important effect in another. A full understanding

of these processes and the linkages between them requires an

integrated approach, including observation systems and their data

streams. Figure 3 provides a visual overview of the integration

process.

Integration is necessary and appropriate for those systems where

the parts are well understood and the benefits outweigh the added

scientific and/or financial costs.

The process of integration begins with these key questions:

Which observation systems functions are related to the identified

societal benefits (a question that requires understanding user

needs)?

What level of integration is desired and cost-effective?

Which observation systems functions will be integrated?

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Societal Benefits

Implementation

Desirability ofIntegration

Required Investment& Development

Integration Categories

Issue Specific

Scientific

Policy/PlanningTe

chni

cal

Figure 3: Overview of the Integration Process


48

Which observations need to be integrated?

What tools and methods will be used to accomplish the integration of the

observation systems functions?

What plans need to be developed and implemented?

This plan starts to answer these questions by viewing integration from four

perspectives:

policy and planning integration,

issue and problem focused integration,

scientific integration, and

technical systems integration.

A. Policy and Planning Integration

Policy and planning integration addresses the identification of and focus on

specific societal benefit areas. In the past, Earth observation systems (research

and operational) typically have been deployed for one purpose, and then

adapted for other applications. In some cases, this approach has worked well,

where observation systems were flexible to accommodate new users. In others,

the original system design and life cycle planning did not anticipate or were

unable to address secondary or unforeseen user applications, either in terms

of the technical and scientific specifications or the availability of operational

capabilities and capacities. The framework developed in this plan helps to

lay the foundation for an integrated approach to policy development for Earth

observations systems that will maximize these synergies.

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B. Issue and Problem-focused Integration

Issue and problem-focused integration addresses how the U.S. Integrated

Earth Observation System addresses a particular issue. In order to get

from observations to societal benefits, several links in a chain need to be

forged. These links include data analysis, research, process modeling,

and finally development of decision support tools. The development of a

decision support tool for application requires the integration of several chains

of investigation of various topics. Effective education, communication, and

outreach are crucial links among operations, science, and society. The results

of Earth observations need to be described in common, consistent, and

understandable terms that are useful for decisions at all levels.

Drought, for instance, impacts all of the nine societal benefit areas. The

assessment and analysis of drought depends on measurements across many

time and space scales, as shown in Table 3. The weekly drought monitoring

reports distributed to the public, with contributions from various agencies, show

how this Earth observation information is integrated across all societal benefit

areas. On monthly time-scales a subset of the Table 3 data and information

from three countries (Canada, Mexico, and the United States) are integrated.

International integration is still in an experimental stage and considerable

data and information have yet to be incorporated into comprehensive drought

assessments.

The urban environment is an example where multiple observations and tools are

required. Physical processes and environmental conditions in our urban and

suburban regions directly impact over 70% of the U.S. population.22 Mapping,

modeling, and monitoring our urban settings allows for better future design


50

decisions that minimize the physical influences of the urban environment on the

natural surroundings.

Societal Benefit Areas Important Observations Time-scales of Interest

Agriculture Soil moisture Weekly

Energy Reservoir and lake water levels Monthly

Water resources Ground water and lake levels/water quality Seasonal to decadal

Weather Circulation, water vapor Daily to weekly

Climate Boundary conditions Weekly to decadal

Ocean resources River flow Monthly

Human health Water availability/quality Daily to seasonal

Ecology Water availability/quality Weekly to decadal

Disasters Vegetation and wildfires Daily to decadal

Table 3: Examples of How Drought Integrates Across Societal Benefit Areas

C. Scientific Integration

Scientific integration addresses those parts of an unresolved problem that

require information across the societal benefit areas or across scientific

sub-disciplines within each of the areas. An important element of scientific

integration includes modeling of Earth processes.

Our understanding of Earth processes begins with scientific research. It

is important that research continue to refine existing models and develop

new paradigms. These models can be useful tools in defining scientific

integration priorities. In some cases, research evolves in a straightforward

manner to operational applications used in regularly scheduled forecasts and


51

projections. However, when different models for the same process give differing

answers, we know we have more work to do. A broader set of observations,

targeted experiments, or better knowledge of underlying mechanisms may be

required to aid our understanding.

Scientific integration can be illustrated by using the example of sea level

change. While measuring sea level change only requires observations,

understanding why sea level is changing requires scientific integration of data

from various sources. Measurements of global sea level data are needed from

tide gauges and satellite altimetry. Additional data concerning the causes of sea

level change include information related to the thermal expansion or contraction

of the sea, which can be acquired through a variety of platforms and

instruments (such as ships, satellites, buoys, expendable bathythermographs,

acoustic tomography, etc.) and information related to land-ice accretion or

ablation (acquired through satellites and in situ measurements). Data on

rates of change of stored water on land and on coastal topography are also

important. To aid our understanding, all of these data and information can

be integrated into land-ice models, ocean models, land-runoff models and

ultimately into even broader integrated sea level models. Ongoing comparisons

of model predictions with observations help improve and validate these models.

D. Technical Systems Integration

Technical systems integration addresses the coordination of observation system

technology and data management systems that enable research and operational

applications. Across many of the societal areas, there are common challenges


52

that would benefit from an investment in integrated solutions. Salient among

these are the following (with associated examples):

Information technology integration: control of the data flow

(communications), processing (analysis), standards and protocols. This

includes the data protocol integration necessary for distribution of data to a

variety of user applications, such as open data formats for processing data.

Observation platform and observation site integration: the infrastructure

and the underpinning of observation systems. This platform and site

integration could include: the physical integration of observation systems

on the same platform or at the same ground site, such as sharing space

and suborbital platforms and observation towers on the ground for various

observations; and maintaining and upgrading major in situ networks in an

orderly way.

Multifunctional integration: using observation platforms not only for

Earth observations but also for communication. For example, the Climate

Reference Network in the U.S. uses the GOES satellite to transmit real-time

benchmark climate observations for a variety of applications including

weather and climate.

Scientific and operational integration: the assurance of the continuity of the

observations. Mechanisms need to be developed to assure the effective

transition of observation systems from research to operational status, where

appropriate.

Integration considerations must also address observation system

evolution. Observation system upgrades, new systems, system

replacements, etc. all need to be considered in the context of a structured

system integration approach. The significance and role assigned to

models and other decision support tools in the integration process must

also be considered. In some cases observation system experiments can

be conducted to provide an objective, quantitative assessment of “how

much something helps and contributes.” However, objective analysis is not

possible in every case, and a well-disciplined subjective evaluation may be

necessary.

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5353

NEXT STEPS IN IMPLEMENTATION

Both the establishment of an appropriate organizational structure

and the development of a common system architecture are critical to the

successful implementation of this Strategic Plan. The steps required to

accomplish both are described below.

A. Establishing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System Organizational Structure

Three organizational steps must be accomplished:

Establish formally the U.S. Group on Earth Observations (a subcommittee of

the NSTC Committee on Environment and Natural Resources and successor

organization to the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations).

Commit necessary agency resources to accomplish the governance

functions.

Implement the approved governance functions of the Subcommittee (US

GEO). The following is an initial list of governance functions that will be

finalized in the Terms of Reference for the Subcommittee.

Establish a process for interaction with external stakeholders,

consistent with the Federal Advisory Committee Act.

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Identify and vet requirements, both within the government and with

external stakeholders, including continued review and assessment

of existing and emerging societal benefit areas, architecture/ data

utilization, and capacity building/ international cooperation.

Establish a process for prioritization of observation system

investments.

Submit an annual report to the National Science and Technology Council

that includes near-term priorities for the upcoming budget year at

the end of each calendar year. Current near-term opportunities are

described in Appendix 2.

Submit to the National Science and Technology Council the mid- and

long-term activities before April of each year.

Establish assessment mechanisms and metrics to validate quality,

relevance, and performance.

Assess current and potential new societal benefit areas.

Refine and clarify the roles and opportunities for commercial

observation networks and for international systems in achieving the

vision of the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System

Establish processes for standards, interoperability, and an open,

scalable architecture.

B. Developing a Common System Architecture

A common system architecture is a necessary key enabler for the U.S.

Integrated Earth Observation System. The following are near-, mid-, and long-

term architectural steps towards the vision for the system.

The near-term architectural steps are:

Establish multi-year process to develop and sustain the Federal Enterprise

Architecture Framework for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System.

Complete an inventory of the systems included in the U.S. Integrated Earth

Observation System.

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Prioritize the list of functional and performance requirements reflected in

box 4, page 28.

Further refine the initial mid- and long-term architectural steps.

The initial list of mid- and long-term architectural steps includes:

Identify candidate system solutions, consistent with the architecture

framework, to deliver Earth observation information in support of the

selected societal benefit areas

Update and maintain inventory of systems

Continue cooperation with the international Earth observation community

and the Global Earth Observation System of Systems

The Subcommittee (US GEO) will regularly review and assess the implications of

scientific and technological advances, particularly innovations that change the

structure and approach to the architecture.

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5757

CONCLUSION

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will provide the

nation with a unique and innovative perspective on the complex, interacting

systems that make up our planet. This Strategic Plan defines the purpose

and vision. It outlines a practical approach with a societal benefits focus,

identifying key issues in integration and governance. This plan highlights

specific opportunities ripe for near-term action by the participating agencies,

and identifies the next steps in implementing the governance and system

architecture.

Like the Earth, the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System will continue

to evolve. An evolving system, taking into account emerging technologies

and scientific advances, is necessary to meet the changing needs of

society. Implementing the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System represents

an exciting opportunity to make lasting improvements in U.S. capacity to deliver

specific benefits to our people, our economy and our planet.


5959

APPENDIX 1: Near-term Opportunities

Because there is currently no comprehensive and integrated

strategy for communicating existing data, data management is highlighted as

both an overarching need, and the necessary first near-term action for this

integrated system. Several other near-term opportunities are identified in this

section, and programs implemented to address these opportunities will do so

within the framework of the Office of Management and Budget’s Research and

Development Investment Criteria (Quality, Performance, and Relevance).

Clear plans have been developed for these opportunities, which are relevant

to national priorities, agency missions, and customer needs. The identified

observations needs are high-priority and multi-year in their goals, with tangible

results easily identified. These potential outcomes cut across all societal benefit

areas identified in this strategy.

A. Data Management

Requirement/Need: The U.S. needs a comprehensive and integrated data

management and communications strategy to effectively integrate the wide


60

variety of Earth observations across disciplines, institutions, and temporal and

spatial scales.

Why now? There are three urgent needs for data management:

New observation systems will lead to a 100-fold increase in Earth

observation data.

Individual agencies’ current data management systems are challenged to

adequately process current data streams.

The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, linking the observations and

users of multiple agencies, compounds these challenges.

Data management is a necessary first step in achieving the synergistic benefits

from the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System described in this document.

Outcome: The expected outcome includes data management systems that are

well-linked and support the full information cycle from observation acquisition

to information delivery. At a minimum, the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System must address these urgent needs by focusing on specific data

management solutions:

Data and products will be made readily available and easily accessible

by applying data management systems.23 This activity will include

standardizing vocabularies across agencies and developing browsing and

visualization systems. Interoperability is achieved through protocols and

standards agreed upon by the member agencies. These tools will enable

users to effectively locate data and information relevant to their needs.

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The quality of Earth and space-based data will be improved by building on

the approaches used by previous scientific data stewardship projects (such

as the satellite pathfinder data reprocessing projects) and model reanalysis

projects (such as North American Reanalysis, Global Reanalysis, and Global

Ocean Data Assimilation Experiments). The output of these projects can

help achieve important objectives of many users: improved data integration,

quality, and granularity.

Metadata will be critical to the success of any integrated data management

system. Technological solutions are currently available to maximize

metadata usage.24 Current efforts are limited to pilot projects. Emphasis

must be focused on a dedicated commitment to implement these software

solutions for all science and technology needs.

B. Improved Observations for Disaster Warnings

Requirement/Need: Disasters afflict all regions of the world, and improved

global disaster reduction and warning is a shared, global need. Geo-hazards

such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides and subsidence are examples of

hazards where improved monitoring can provide improved forecasting. We

need a complete monitoring system that supports risk assessment surveys,

providing information critical to improved mitigation strategies and providing

systematic and sustained monitoring of regions at risk. The greatest set of

unmet observational requirements is for systematic, widespread coverage. This

can best be delivered by maintaining and modernizing existing in situ

atmospheric, ground-based, and ocean observation systems and by enhancing

our capabilities in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and interferometric synthetic

aperture radar (InSAR) systems.25 Applications of InSAR include robust

observations of surface deformation, which complements time-continuous

observations of deformation derived from GPS networks. Other major SAR

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hazards applications include monitoring sea ice, oil slicks, and inundation from

flooding.

Why now? In many cases, in situ airborne and ground-based systems are

not being maintained to meet research and operational objectives and are

not being modernized to meet their research and operational potentials, even

though plans exist for development of these systems. In the next few years,

the governments of Canada and Japan will launch advanced synthetic aperture

radar satellites, and there is a pressing need to work in advance on data

access. Although we have demonstrated the capability through limited sporadic

synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, we currently have no operational radar

satellite system that could truly, in a real-time manner, reduce hazards, help

mitigate disasters, and realize goals of saving lives and reducing damage.

Outcome: Improved ground-based disaster research and warning networks,

incorporating more systematic use of InSAR and exploitation of SAR’s all-

weather capability, will:

access data from existing and planned synthetic aperture radar systems by

the U.S., Canada, Europe and Japan;

improve rapid observation of damage and landscape change caused by the

geohazards;

provide better monitoring of land and sea ice, oil slicks, and flooding;

enable better forecasts, preparations, and more rapid responses to

disasters; and

broaden access and distribution of key data sets to the relevant

communities of scientists, operational agencies and decision-makers.

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C. Global Land Observation System

Requirement/Need: We need a comprehensive and sustained land observation

system to support land management decisions. These data are currently

broadly used in a wide variety of research and management areas such as:

the influence of land cover on water quality,

the extent of urban sprawl, and

how best characterize biodiversity, agricultural production, forest and

vegetation health, fire management, etc.

Why now? The main source of our current land observation data, Landsat,

is facing technological obsolescence, mission life limitations, and funding

challenges. The Landsat Data Continuity Mission has faced delays throughout

its programmatic history.

Potential Outcome: A global land observation system that provides sustained

national and global observations of land cover and high-resolution topography

from satellite, airborne and surface systems to complement the historical

archive. Examples of capabilities this system should provide included:

High resolution digital topographic data including digital elevation maps

Continued collection and/or acquisition of remotely-sensed land cover data

Access to commercial land remote-sensing imagery

D. Sea Level Observation System

Requirement/Need: We need an operational sea level observation system

to provide comprehensive and sustained sea level data and prediction of

future changes in sea levels. With millions of people living near the coast,

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changes in sea level will be a concern to life and property, especially for barrier

islands, coastal cities, river deltas, and islands. The storm surge generated by

hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones would exacerbate the effects of potential

sea level rise. Improved data on global sea level rise is a high priority issue

requiring strengthened international cooperation in the sustained collection of

high-quality observations as the basis for sound decision-making. Currently

there is no integrated operational ocean altimetry system.

Why now? We have the opportunity to transition satellite altimetry research

capabilities to operational use (Jason-1). Future uninhabited aerial vehicles

(UAVs) and other suborbital systems will provide unique opportunities to

monitor processes and change in coastal regions and wetlands. Lack of timely

action may prevent the effective transition of this capability to operational

status. Globally averaged sea level could rise 9 to 88 centimeters over the

coming century, impacting coastal infrastructure investments that are being

made today.26 Alaska is already facing relocation of over 100 villages due to

coastal erosion and reduced sea ice cover.27 Critical measurements are needed

immediately to validate models to properly project sea level.

Outcome: The outcome is an operational sea level observation system that

allows us to:

Determine the rate of change in global sea level

Understand the interaction of factors that cause sea level rise

Predict future state of sea level and its impacts on coastal areas

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E. National Integrated Drought Information System

Requirement/Need: Drought is a threat to the economic stability and prosperity

of the Nation, and is having a $6-$8 billion annual impact.

Why now? We are facing the worst severe drought consequences in the

western United States in 70 years.28 There is an urgent national interest in

better information on drought. Recently, the Western Governors’ Association

developed a set of requirements, through a broad-based team of Federal

and nonFederal partners, for a National Integrated Drought Information

System. These requirements were developed in conjunction with the National

Drought Policy Commission’s report to Congress and the pending Drought

Preparedness Act before Congress. In addition, in 2004, the Committee on

Environment and Natural Resources Subcommittee for Disaster Reduction

acknowledged its seriousness by including it as one of its eight “Grand

Challenges.”

Outcome: The National Integrated Drought Information System represents

a comprehensive, user-friendly, web accessible system to serve the needs

of policy and decision-makers at all levels—local, state, regional, and

national—concerned with U.S. drought preparedness, mitigation, and relief/

recovery. Research efforts seek to improve drought-related observations

such as soil moisture as envisioned in National Aeronautics and Space

Administration’s Hydros mission. Improved drought prediction is a main

emphases and outcome in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Program Plans for Climate-Weather Connections Research and Climate

Prediction, and are consistent with coordinated interagency efforts, with


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Academic partners, to develop an integrated Earth System Modeling

Framework.29

F. Air Quality Assessment and Forecast System

Requirement/Need: Understanding air quality and its influence on people

and the environment requires enhanced surface-based observations. Existing

surface monitoring networks must be integrated with air quality observations

from other platforms, including satellites, ships and aircraft, and used to develop

and evaluate improved predictive models and decision support tools.

Why now? Despite dramatic improvements in air quality in the United States

over the last 30 years—a period in which our population grew 39 percent, our

energy consumption grew 42 percent, and our economy grew 164 percent—

air quality problems have grown in many areas of the world, particularly in

some fast-growing developing countries. Even with continuing air quality

improvements in the United States, over 100 million people live in U.S. counties

that exceed National Ambient Air Quality Standards.30 It is well known that poor

air quality is harmful to the health of both adults and children.

Potential Outcome: An enhanced observational system integrated with modeling

and decision support tools will:

Improve the ability to forecast air quality across large parts of the country

(and in other parts of the world) for which forecasts are not currently

available

Provide better information about emissions and transport mechanisms on

regional to the international scales

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Provide important information to help the public avoid harmful exposures

and to help air quality management better manage air pollution episodes

over the short and long terms.

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6969

APPENDIX 2: Societal Benefit Area Technical Reference

Report Summaries

Preamble

This Appendix provides summaries of detailed technical reference reports for

each societal benefit area. These technical reports were written by interagency

working teams as part of the development of the Strategic Plan for the U.S.

Integrated Earth Observation System. The purpose of the technical reports

was to: 1) provide the state of Earth observations in each of the societal

benefit areas; 2) identify what observations are currently underway 3) identify

observational gaps and research needs, and 4) describe how these gaps are

being addressed. The interagency working teams are continually updating the

reports and incorporating comments from the public and scientific community,

both inside and outside the Federal government. As such, these documents

are not statements of U.S. Government policy, but are “living” documents,

for reference throughout the process of coordinating our Earth observations

into a truly integrated system. The associated technical reference documents

may be accessed in their entirety on the Interagency Working Group on Earth

Observations website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.



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This appendix provides an Executive Summary of those technical reports, and

is not intended to be an exhaustive reference. It is divided into nine sections,

each summarizing the observations for a benefit area, starting with the most

mature system, Weather Forecasting. The benefit areas not only vary greatly

in maturity of observation systems, but also by their very nature—for example

weather forecasting is vital to every societal benefit area. On the other hand,

Human Health and Well-Being relies on observations and the resulting data

products from across the set of benefit areas. There are, however, some

common threads across all benefit areas as discussed below.

Users of Observations

The beneficiaries of improved Earth observation will be society as a

whole. However, in order to assess the efficacy of existing systems and identify

gaps and future needs, we first must understand who the critical users are, and

identify their needs. In the context of the nine societal benefits areas, these

groups are:

End users include the general public, the commercial sector and authorities with

responsibility, for example, for managing the distribution and quality assurance

of resources.

Scientists, managers, and policy makers in advisory, service and regulatory agencies who need to make informed decisions on predictions of

future conditions, respond to environmental changes and disasters in real time,

develop accurate assessments and simulation tools to support decision-making,

and run operational forecast and modeling centers.


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Research scientists whose research is directed toward improving our

understanding of the physical, chemical, biological, and ecological relationships

that define our Earth system.

Integrated Data Transformation

An integrated Earth information system must provide for a seamless link

between the providers and users of information systems. The following figure

summarizes the issues in terms of transformations of raw observational data

from many sources, from the long term record of observations, from data

collected as part of research investigations, to highly precise continuous

observations, to new types of data from improved observation systems. Such

data require a comprehensive and reliable data management archive, coupled

with tools to derive information products, a system for distribution, support

for user interactions with the information products, and decision support

tools that provide for user feedback to maintain and improve the end-to-end

system. Observation systems must provide for integration of the data in the

full end-to-end system that meets the requirements for: 1) stringent standards

of calibration, sampling and accuracy necessary for useful data; 2) stability

to maintain ongoing data archive; and 3) continued improvement through

technical advances and user feedback.


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Maintenance of Existing Systems and Data Collections

A critical challenge across all benefit areas is to maintain and operate observing

capabilities and existing data archives. Progress in Earth observations will

come in part from new capabilities and information. However, without the

simple maintenance or enhancement of existing systems, for example, stream

flow gauges for water monitoring and continuity of Landsat capabilities ,

progress will be spotty at best. Stability of observing systems is another

important issue—we need to ensure that there will not be gaps in, for example,

continuous satellite measurements. A third critical issue is the maintenance

of observational records at all levels to allow scientists to evaluate the effects


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of change in, for example, air quality and or drinking water quality. Other key

variables requiring maintenance include, for example, monitoring of disease,

population characteristics, food production and distribution. Since the value

of existing datasets greatly increases as the record is extended over time (for

example, weather and climate data), it is imperative that existing capabilities

be maintained and improved, while at the same time new requirements are

incorporated.

Section 1: Improve Weather Forecasting

1. The State of Earth Observations for Weather Forecasting

The state of Earth observations for weather forecasting is the most mature

observing system in the United States. As described in a recent National

Research Council report, provision of weather services within the U.S. has

evolved, over the past 40 years, from an almost exclusively governmental

function to one carried out by the public sector (a combination of Federal, state,

and local government agencies), the private sector, and academia. Partnerships

exist at all levels to support meeting the weather needs of an increasingly

diverse user community.

On the Federal level, the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological

Services and Supporting Research (also known as the Office of the Federal

Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM)) ensures the effective use of Federal

meteorological resources by leading the systematic coordination of operational

weather requirements and services, and supporting research, among

the Federal agencies. Fifteen Federal agencies are currently engaged in

meteorological activities and participate in the OFCM’s coordination and


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cooperation infrastructure. Each year, OFCM prepares The Federal Plan for

Meteorological Services and Supporting Research for the next fiscal year. This

Congressionally mandated plan is a one-of-a-kind document, which articulates

the meteorological services provided and supporting research conducted by

Federal agencies. The Fiscal Year 2004 plan can be found at http://www.ofcm.

gov/fp-fy04/fedplan.htm.

2. What Can We Observe Now?

The U.S. uses both remote-sensing and in-situ observation systems to collect

required weather observations. Earth observation satellites provide an inherent

wide area observation capability, non-intrusive observations, uniformity,

rapid measurements, and continuity. In-situ observation systems provide

measurements unobtainable from space, measurements complementary

to those from space, and validation of satellite measurements. Weather

information providers need observations from both types of systems to provide

required weather forecasts. Major observational infrastructure investments

by NOAA, NASA, FAA, and DOD provide the bulk of the currently deployed

U.S. weather observing capabilities. The U.S. has an impressive space-,

surface- and air-based weather observation infrastructure. For example,

NOAA’s catalog of observing systems is contained in the Strategic Direction for

NOAA’s Integrated Global Environmental Observation and Data Management

System. Also, NASA describes its Earth observing systems within its

Destination Earth website (http://www.earth.nasa.gov).

http://www.ofcm.gov/fp-fy04/fedplan.htm

http://www.ofcm.gov/fp-fy04/fedplan.htm

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3. What Can’t We Observe Now?

The box to the right illustrates the capabilities

necessary for improving weather observing. Major

gaps affecting weather forecasting improvements

exist in two broad areas: exploiting weather

information that currently exists, and improving that

existing information. Within these two broad areas,

there are five sub-categories of gaps in weather

information that can be addressed by the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation

System:

Observational Lack of complete global observational coverage of the

atmosphere, land, and oceans (for example, poor resolution, inadequate quality)

inhibits development and exploitation of extended-range products. The following

critical atmospheric parameters are not adequately measured by current

or planned observing systems: wind profiles; vertical profiles of moisture;

precipitation; thermal profiling of the ocean mixed layer; soil moisture; surface

pressure; and snow equivalent-water content.

Modeling Inadequate aspects of scientific modeling (data assimilation,

numerical weather prediction, and statistical post processing) limit the

accuracy and reliability of weather forecasts and warnings. Numerical weather

prediction (NWP) models have gaps in the following categories of data that

increase uncertainty and reduce model accuracy: vertical profiles of moisture

flux; coverage of tropical land areas and ocean areas; measurements of clouds,

precipitation, and ozone; rigorous calibration of remotely-sensed radiances.

Decision Support Tools Decision analysis in disparate areas needs more than

an accurate weather forecast. Techniques are needed to tailor those forecasts

to specific applications to achieve full value.

Weather Forecasting Functional Requirements:

Increased coverage and resolution of observations

Observations of environmental elements not presently observed

Improved timeliness, data quality, and long-term continuity of observations

Integrated multi-purpose observing systems and networks that allow rapid dissemination of weather information

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Information Technologies Telecommunication and computer-processing

gaps limit observations exchange, scientific collaboration, and dissemination

of critical information to decision-makers and the general populace. Also,

full implementation of new observing systems technologies is challenging due

in part to a lack of structure to facilitate transition of research technologies

to operational use in all components of the end-to-end weather-information

services system.

Education and Training With improvements in all facets of producing and

delivering weather information, parallel improvements in education and training

processes are necessary to ensure full user exploitation of that information.

A recent article in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,

listed warm-season quantitative precipitation forecasts as the poorest

performance area of forecast systems worldwide. This report illustrates the

gaps and challenges facing the national and international weather forecasting

communities. Key gaps were found in understanding scientific processes,

observations, and data assimilation. Specifically:

Scientific processes Knowledge of environmental aerosols may prove

necessary for properly representing cloud microphysical processes, but there

are no efforts underway to provide routine observations of aerosols or even to

provide a systematic research assessment of the forecast sensitivity.

Observations Observations on the scale of the events being forecast (for

example, summer thunderstorms) are limited to those available from surface

mesonets, profilers, radars, and geostationary and GPS satellites. While useful,

these observing systems do not provide certain key pieces of information required

by models. For example, the quality and vertical resolution of geosynchronous

satellite data over heterogeneous continental backgrounds remains unacceptably

low. Distant radars overshoot the boundary layer while nearby radars leave a

“cone of silence”, and surface mesonets provide no information about the free

troposphere unless augmented with profiling devices.


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Data assimilation Data assimilation may be the most critical path through

which advances in forecasting convective precipitation will be modulated. Two

glaring gaps exist here: (1) a serious deficiency in human resources working on

data assimilation, and (2) a large fraction of current observations are not being

assimilated into today’s models.

Addressing these challenges, the USWRP recommends a tightly knit

implementation plan addressing basic research, advanced development

(observations, assimilation technologies, and forecast systems), and

experimental forecast demonstrations (with emphasis on verification metrics

that are relevant to and understood by the general populace).

4. How are we Addressing Gaps?

The U.S. is addressing gaps in weather forecasting in three broad areas: plans,

programs, and research.

Plans NWS has published two plans that form the basis of improving weather

information within the U.S.—the NWS Science and Technology Infusion

Plan (STIP) and the NWS Service Improvement Plan (NSIP). The NWS

STIP: looks into the future and explains how science and technology

may evolve NWS products and services; defines long-term strategies,

objectives, and programs; and illustrates how the NWS plans to take

advantage of scientific opportunities beyond the next ten years. The

NSIP translates the grand vision of the NWS STIP into specific customer

service improvements in the areas of aviation, climate, fire weather,

hydrology, marine weather, health (for example, air quality), and

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Internationally, the WMO Expert Team on Observational Data Requirements and

Redesign of the Global Observing System (GOS) has developed a vision for the

GOS of 2015, which includes an observation component (with both remote-

sensing and in-situ systems), and a data management component. This vision

document provides a prioritized list of critical atmospheric parameters that are

not adequately measured by current or planned observing systems. Those

parameters in order of priority are:

Wind profiles at all levels

Temperature profiles of adequate vertical resolution in cloudy areas

Precipitation

Soil moisture

Surface pressure

Snow equivalent water content

Programs Two new operational weather satellite systems—the National Polar-

orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System (NPOESS) and

the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-R (GOES-R)—

will replace NOAA’s current polar and geostationary satellites in 2009

and 2012, respectively. Both will provide improved technologies to

support the detection and monitoring of severe weather, tropical

cyclones, volcanic eruptions, and volcanic-ash clouds. These

instruments will have improved spatial and temporal resolution, and

will include a wider range of spectral bands than current U.S. polar-

orbiting systems, although some bands currently available and used

for fire detection will either be absent or too sensitive on the NPOESS

equivalent for fire detection during daytime.

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Other weather-related future solutions include expansion of the commercial

aircraft Meteorological Data Collecting and Reporting System (MDCRS) globally,

and more use of local carriers, expanded deployment of surface-based radar

wind profilers to observe the atmospheric boundary layer, development and

deployment of arrays of phased-array radars to significantly increase the

quantity, quality, and timeliness of weather information during extreme weather

events. In addition, operational deployment of unmanned aerial vehicles

will enable routine in situ monitoring of the vertical distribution of several

atmospheric parameters over wide regions, including remote areas of the

globe not currently accessible. The DOT Intelligent Transportation Systems

Program and NOAA are working to expand the collection and integration of

surface-based observing systems, particularly as it pertains to commerce and

surface transportation. Two initiatives in particular, the Nationwide Surface

Transportation Observing and Forecasting System (also known as Clarus) and

Vehicle Infrastructure Integration, are exploring the exploitation of land- and

vehicle-based technology to collect additional weather data.

Research There are several collaborative research and development activities

focused on improving operational weather forecasting capabilities.

While this is not an exhaustive list of research programs, it illustrates

the national focus on improving weather forecasting to benefit

society.

First, through the Joint Center for Satellite Data Assimilation, NOAA, NASA, and

DoD are developing common NWP model and data-assimilation infrastructure

for:


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Accelerated development of assimilation algorithms for current operational

satellite soundings from GOES, POES, and DMSP

Rapid assimilation of programmed operational (CrIS, ATMS, and VIRS on

NPOESS) and research satellite data (from QuickSCAT, TRMM, and MODIS)

into operational models

Second, NOAA is working with NASA’s Short-term Prediction Research and

Transition Center to accelerate the infusion of NASA science and technology to

help meet Weather Forecast Office requirements for improved:

Aviation forecasts

Specification of convective initiation and evolution

Specification of precipitation type

Prediction of precipitation amounts and area extent

Third, NASA has a Weather Research Roadmap, which is a combined vision

of NASA, NOAA, and the research community. This Roadmap outlines

recommended steps to help the nation achieve improvement in near-, mid-,

and far-term forecasts using NASA’s latest data and modeling research. The

Roadmap sets weather forecast improvement goals, identifies key steps

to achieve those goals, identifies enabling research for improved weather

forecasts, and links this weather-program implementation plan to the NASA

Science Directorate research strategy.

Fourth, DOT activities, including the FAA Aviation Weather Research Program

(AWRP) are striving to increase scientific understanding of atmospheric

conditions that cause dangerous weather impacting aviation. The research

is aimed at producing weather observations, warnings, and forecasts that

are more accurate and more accessible. Within the AWRP, FAA partners

with NOAA, DoD, the National Center for Atmospheric Research, and the

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Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Lincoln Laboratory to develop product

development teams (PDTs). These PDTs are teams of scientists from the

partner organizations who work together to solve aviation problems caused by

weather. Teams are currently organized to address the following topics: in-flight

icing, aviation forecasts, forecast quality, turbulence, winter weather, convective

weather, terminal and national ceiling and visibility, model development and

enhancement, advanced weather radar techniques, and oceanic weather. In

addition, FHWA, NOAA, NASA and NCAR are working to improve surface data

collection that improve weather information for surface transportation users and

operators.

Fifth, through USWRP, Federal agencies are partnering with universities and

other research institutions to mitigate the effects of weather disasters (such

as hurricanes) and to improve predictions of precipitation and flooding. Four

current USWRP initiatives promise immediate benefits to national security,

energy, and the economy:

The Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) will be used by both

researchers and forecasters, putting research improvements into immediate

operational use. With USWRP and other funding, a prototype has been

developed and is currently being tested. WRF is a collaborative effort among

a number of government agencies and universities.

The Hemispheric Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment

(THORPEX), a major international field experiment over the Pacific

Ocean, will improve two- to ten-day forecasts for U.S. regions and urban

areas. THORPEX is planned for 2003-2010, and involves dozens of

institutions, and researchers and operational meteorologists from 14

nations from the Northern Hemisphere.

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Operational testbeds will evaluate new weather-prediction models and new

forecasting techniques without interfering with the day-to-day operation

of forecast centers. Two test beds are currently being developed—one for

hurricane predictions and another for modeling improvements.

Short-term forecasting improvements will focus on a few hours out to

two days and will improve predictions of severe storms, distribution of

precipitation, temperature, and air quality.

From an international to a local perspective, improving the accuracy, timeliness,

and reliability of weather information is critically important. Gradually, more

nations are recognizing the societal benefits to be gained through Earth

observations and the efficiencies to be realized by working together. Within

the U.S., an Integrated Earth Observation System (IEOS) will help realize those

efficiencies, and create a synergy between improved weather forecasting

and the development of an IEOS. Weather forecasters have made significant

progress in establishing common requirements across the spectrum of

users. Continued weather-forecasting improvements and a sustained weather-

information infrastructure will depend on effective partnerships, implementing

appropriate components of existing plans, and developing and implementing the

IEOS. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Weather

Forecasting area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Weather

Forecasting Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.

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Section 2: Reduce Loss Of Life And Property From Disasters

1. The State of Earth Observations for Disaster Mitigation

Natural and technological disasters, such as

hurricanes and other extreme weather events,

earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and

debris flows, wildland and urban-interface fires,

floods, oil spills, and space-weather storms

impose a significant burden on society. Within the

U.S., disasters inflict many injuries and deaths,

and cost the Nation $20 billion each year. The

Earth observation systems needed to forecast

and mitigate disasters are diverse in type and

maturity. The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR)

Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction report “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability

through Science and Technology” identifies the many existing interagency and

international partnerships that are involved in an array of valuable cooperative

programs for improving the resiliency of American communities to all hazards.

The Subcommittee for Disaster Recovery has identified many existing

interagency partnerships that deal with particular hazards. An example is flood

monitoring and response, which involves coordination among the NWS, USGS,

FEMA and USACE. Another example is dealing with the hazards posed by

volcanic ash clouds. Safe air traffic control involves coordination between NOAA

(both the NWS and NESDIS), the USGS, the USAF, and the FAA.

Disaster Mitigation Functional Requirements:

Continuity of operations

Continuous, real-time data streams

Rapid tasking of other data sources

Global coordination of resources

Rapid generation of accurate information and forecasts, and

Efficient sharing of information products, in formats that are adapted to users’ needs.

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Disasters can also span beyond our borders, where international cooperation

is paramount to ensure public safety. Some key international partnerships

and coordinating bodies for disaster observations include the WMO and the

associated Meteorological Watch Offices, the nine Volcanic Ash Advisory

Centers, the International Charter for Space and Major Disasters, the

Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Organization,

which has a number of monitoring systems, and the International Space

Environment Service. We are beginning to see the success of linking global

observations to help mitigate disasters, examples are the National Ice Center

which collaborates internationally through the WMO/IOC; the International

Ice Chart Working Group, formed in 1999, provides operational cooperation

amongst national ice services, with regional (North American) collaboration

handled by the US-Canadian Joint Ice Working Group. Another category

of international partnerships includes programs such as the USGS Volcano

Disaster Assistance Program (cosponsored by the USGS and USAID/OFDA)

and the Civil Military Emergency Preparedness program of the USACE.


Observation systems currently exist for use in observing wildland fires,

earthquakes, volcanic activity landslides, floods, extreme weather, tropical

cyclones, sea and lake ice, coastal hazards, pollution events and space weather.

Many of the data and observations are common to more than one hazard. For

instance, there is extensive overlap among the weather or weather-driven

hazards. Some overlap also exists among the solid-Earth hazards and, in

certain areas, among floods, sea ice, and coastal hazards. However, there are


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other significant commonalities that may be less widely appreciated: wildland

fires, volcano eruptions, and some pollution events have overlaps for thermal

signals, gas emissions, smoke and aerosols, and sediment and other discharges

into water. Seven of the individual hazards listed require information on soil

moisture.

Significant overlap exists between the observational needs for pollution events,

such as oil or chemical spills, and those for the natural events. In addition,

most large natural disasters (especially wildland fires, earthquakes, and floods)

result in significant pollution as part of the event.

Below is a brief summary of the observation capabilities that currently exist for

each type of disaster:

Extreme Weather, Tropical Cyclones See the section on Weather forecasting

in this Appendix. These capabilities are augmented by 1) low-resolution

topographic observations, and 2) location of infrastructure and transportation

routes.

Flood hazards The monitoring, evaluation, and forecasting of floods (such as

those produced near large rivers, whether by large storms or spring snow melt) are

relatively mature, and depend on a combination of ground-based and remotely-

sensed data streams. Data categories include topographic observations, stream

flow, groundwater levels, snow cover characterization, tides and coastal water

levels, spatial distribution and density of manmade impervious surface area

(ISA), and vegetation cover.

Earthquakes Archiving of seismic records (by the USGS and IRIS) is systematic

and more mature than for most other kinds of solid Earth hazard data. For

example, the U.S. operates and maintains the Global Seismographic Network

(GSN) of 137 stations spanning the globe for continuous monitoring of

earthquakes and tsunami. Current observational capabilities other than seismic


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monitoring include low-resolution topographic observations, high resolution

gravity and electric field measurements, thermal and gas emissions, water

chemistry, and ground water levels.

Volcanic eruptions Monitoring volcanic activity, including volcanic ash and

aerosols, requires a wide range of ground-based, airborne and satellite support.

Current observing capabilities include low-resolution topography, seismic

monitoring, strain monitoring, monitoring of gas emissions, high resolution

measurements of gravity and electric fields, physical properties of Earth

materials, thermal emissions, water chemistry, and discharges into water.

Landslides Current capabilities include low-resolution topography, bedrock

characterization, seismic monitoring, ground movement (including liquefaction),

deformation monitoring, water levels, stream flow, and inundation areas.

Wildland and urban-interface fires These extremely complex events require

rapid weather observations, at various time scales and spatial resolutions.

Current observing capabilities besides needed weather observations and fire

maps generated in response to an event, include vegetation condition and fuel

loading, sediment discharges, stream flow, and low-resolution topography.

Coastal hazards, tsunami, and sea ice hazards These hazards require

coordination of information across a range of observing systems. For example,

accurate forecasting of storm surge and coastal flooding depends on combining

hurricane landfall forecasts with stream flow information and tidal and

wave height data. Available observations include low-resolution topography,

characterization of surficial deposits, ground movement, seismic monitoring,

physical properties of Earth materials, water chemistry, discharges into water,

and stream flow.

Pollution hazards These hazards may be triggered by other hazard events

(such as an earthquake or flood), or be induced by human activity. An example

is the release of chemicals or petroleum on land, into fresh-water systems,

coastal zones, the sea, or into the atmosphere. Oil spills can be tracked with

satellite imagery, in particular with Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery.


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Other current capabilities include topography, smoke and ash cloud detection,

water chemistry, stream flow, and inundation area.


Observation systems for disaster prediction and monitoring, though some are

relatively mature, must be continually maintained and improved. There are still

many significant gaps, including instrumental, temporal and spatial coverage,

baseline data and models, communications networks, and decision-support

tools. In addition, some existing capabilities are deteriorating or will be lost.

Some major gaps include, but are not limited to:

Easier access to Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data. Currently this means

seeking better access to Canadian and European C-band SAR satellite

imagery. In addition, Japan plans to launch a new L-band SAR (the PALSAR

sensor on the ALOS satellite) in 2006. That will be a welcome development,

but PALSAR and other current SAR sensors are designed as research

instruments, and share power and downlink capabilities with other sensors

on the same satellites. Consequently, the amount of SAR data available

is severely limited now, and will be for the next 6-8 years. Specifically,

it is inadequate for both routine ice monitoring (the principal use of the

Canadian Radarsat) and for routine use of interferometric SAR (InSAR)

to monitor deformation caused by volcanic activity, or by local surface

instability (such as landslides or subsidence) or by motions on faults or

plate boundaries on a continental or global scale. Additional C-band (or X-

band) and L-band SAR capability, to generate all-weather imagery suitable

for InSAR, for a wide range of hazards, could address this gap.

Improved access to moderate-to-high-resolution near- infrared (IR) and

short-wave IR imagery is needed, especially for fire response, and for

volcano monitoring. High-resolution imagery needs for volcanoes, plus

rapid, tactical IR imagery support for wildfire response, would be better met

by airborne IR cameras, as there will be less interference from clouds.

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High-resolution satellite and airborne imagery support are needed for

nearly all types of disasters. For example, detailed images are needed for

wildfire response not only during severe fire season, but also for pre-fire

studies to characterize the health and types of vegetation, and fuel loading.

Such information is essential to assess areas at highest risk of fire in the

immediate future. Detailed mapping of geologic and topological features

are essential for improved response to wildfires, solid Earth hazards, floods,

ice hazards, and coastal hazards.

Examples of gaps in land-based observation capabilities include deformation

monitoring for earthquakes, volcanoes, and coastal hazards; more extensive

stream flow monitoring for extreme weather and flooding; improved seismic

monitoring for earthquakes and volcanoes; detailed mapping of surficial

deposits (including fill, dumps) for land-based hazards, ice hazards and

pollution events; and strain and creep monitoring for earthquakes and

landslides. Other problem areas include inundation forecasting, especially in

heavily developed areas, sufficiently rapid modeling and warnings for flash

flooding, and effective snow melt forecasting.

Other needs include the expansion of emergency airborne capabilities

including UAVs (for severe weather, fire/fuels mapping, volcano observation,

characterization of airborne contaminant plumes), and expansion of capabilities

for airborne LIDAR and SAR (to support detailed observation of topography

and topographic changes). Research into new instrumentation (cost-effective,

portable, sensitive, accurate, and quickly deployable) to identify/monitor a

wide range of trace gases, toxic chemicals, or explosives in soil, water, and

the atmosphere would provide critically important data for many disaster

and hazard situations. Remotely controllable sensors that can function in

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extreme or unusual environments (near erupting volcanoes, in wildfires, or in

malfunctioning nuclear reactors) will be needed.


Plans to address gaps include two new satellite systems—the NPOESS

and GOES-R. These systems will replace current polar and geostationary

satellites in 2009 and 2012, respectively. Both satellites will provide improved

technologies to support the detection and monitoring of severe weather,

tropical cyclones, volcanic eruptions and ash clouds, and will provide data

essential to the fundamental research on these processes and events. Onboard

instruments will have improved spatial and temporal resolution, and will include

a wider range of spectral bands than instruments on current POES systems,

although some bands currently available and used for fire detection will either

be absent or too sensitive on the NPOESS equivalent for fire detection in

daytime. In addition, the GEO Lightning Mapper will monitor lightning in support

of better extreme-weather assessment.

Future weather-related solutions also include expansion of the commercial

aircraft Meteorological Data Collecting and Reporting System (MDCRS) globally,

and increased use of local carriers, expanded deployment of surface-based

radar wind profilers to observe the atmospheric boundary layer, development

and deployment of arrays of phased-array radars to significantly increase the

quantity, quality and timeliness of weather information in extreme weather.

In addition, operational deployment of long range, long endurance aerial

vehicles will enable the persistent tracking and high resolution observation of

atmospheric phenomena over their life cycle.


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Most of the gaps in disaster-related Earth observations systems require

further analysis and planning. Many land-based systems, such as stream

flow monitoring and seismic monitoring, exist but need to be expanded and

upgraded. Satellite observations of thermal emissions via infrared imagery,

which could make a significant contribution to our ability to forecast and

manage fires and volcanoes, must be expanded and improved.

For disaster-related Earth observations, the two overarching considerations for

future Earth observation systems are:

(1) The development of a process whereby the unmet needs for expansion and

modernization of the vast array of surface-based monitoring systems can

be dealt with in the 10-year time span of the plan. This work is essential to

maintain the benefits of the status quo, to define the needed communications

infrastructure, and to prepare for the future expansion of population and

infrastructure into areas of high risk. This deployment can be incremental,

but it should be systematic, for all critical systems. This array of surface-

based monitoring systems will provide the landscape-scale observations

needed for basic research to understand natural hazards and their root

processes, and to improve modeling and forecasting of hazard events.

(2) The clarification of responsibility for designing, building, launching and

operating satellites that are intended to observe the solid surface of

the Earth at moderate spatial resolution, with temporal resolution and

spectral capabilities adequate for the range of natural hazards discussed

here. NOAA/NESDIS covers weather and other atmospheric observational

requirements, and many ocean requirements, but operational satellites for

solid-Earth surface observations currently have no home. Earth surface

observations are essential for both operational purposes and basic research

on geographically distributed natural processes. For a more in-depth look

at the state of Earth observations in the Reducing Loss of Life and Property

from Disasters arena, as well as for a list of references, please see the


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Reducing Loss of Life and Property From Disasters Reference Document on

the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 3: Protect And Monitor Our Ocean Resource

1. The State of Earth Observations for Ocean Resources

Observing systems for ocean resources are in various stages of development

and maturity. Some systems have been in place for over 100 years such as

water level networks; others such as Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)

and ocean carbon monitors are relatively new. Observing system assets are

available in various levels of operation and reliability. Research and pilot efforts

are also in progress, either planned or transitioning from development efforts

into the operational systems. New scientific knowledge has established the

importance of monitoring the global blue water, in addition to our Exclusive

Economic Zone (EEZ), inland seas, rivers and watersheds. Also critical is the

concept of ecosystem management.

The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy Report and the U.S. Ocean Action

Plan call for the integrated ocean/coastal

observing system (IOOS) to be coordinated

among Federal agencies, academics and

regional ocean information groups. The

National Oceanographic Partnership Program’s

(NOPP) National Research Leadership Council

(NORLC) formed the Ocean.US Executive

Committee (EXCOM) that oversees the

activities of the Ocean.US office, which is now

Monitoring Ocean Resource Functional Requirements:

Open access to continuous, real-time, near real-time, and delayed data streams, and rapid access to archives

Robust calibration and validation for all systems

An efficient process to transition research into operations


Rapid generation of accurate information and forecasts

Efficient sharing of information products, in formats that are adapted to users’ needs

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coordinating the development and implementation of the U.S. IOOS. Reducing

the impacts to ocean resources will require better global datasets and

improvements in now-casting, in addition to forecasting effects of weather,

climate, and human activities on the coastal ocean, its ecosystems, and living

resources. These drivers will require additional ocean observing capabilities,

and extensive data management efforts, along with links to other ocean

observing systems.


Ocean observing systems can monitor many physical, biological, geological

parameters using a variety of methods. As illustrative examples, remote-sensing

methods can provide sea surface temperature, sea surface height, surface

winds, ocean color, type and condition of coastal habitats; ship-based systems

provide temperature and salinity profiles, fish abundance, age and condition,

bottom topography; in situ systems provide river flows, water levels, sediment

load, nutrient concentrations, biological community sampling.

Concerted national and international efforts have taken place for over a decade

during the development of the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS);

where initial efforts focused on climate, and coastal systems implemented in

several European countries. IOOS is the U.S. component of the larger Global

Ocean Observing System (GOOS) that is being developed under the auspices

of IOC/UNESCO, both of which will be vital components of the Global Earth

Observation System of Systems (GEOSS).

Many of the data and observations are common to more than one ocean

resource issues. For instance, water levels are needed for navigation safety,


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flood forecasting, habitat restoration and coastal zone management. On the

other hand, fish abundance has more limited application. Specific sensor types

and networks used include:

Remote-sensing instruments on aircraft, satellite and land-based

platforms, such as: passive electro-optical imaging sensors (multispectral

and hyperspectral) and active electro-optical (LIDAR); passive

microwave (radiometers and sounders) and active microwave (altimeters,

scatterometers, and Synthetic Aperture Radar), and high frequency radar.

Ship-based measurements, such as net sampling, manual and pumped

measurements of physical, chemical, optical and biological properties, and

acoustic measurements of bathymetry and currents.

Coastal, open ocean, or land-based in-situ systems that allow for

unattended (autonomous or semi-autonomous) operation, such as: wind,

wave and temperature sensors on moored buoys; drifters; shore based

platforms such as tide gauges; water quality sensors; and autonomous

underwater vehicles (AUVs).

In-water measurements that require attended operation, such as: manual

sampling of underwater species; remotely operated vehicles (ROVs);

underwater video/photography; and underwater laboratories.

Sentinel and research sites located at the shoreline; in bays, estuaries,

rivers, offshore, and the deep ocean; and on the ocean floor.

Systematic regional fisheries and protected species surveys conducted by

observers on ships and aircraft to establish seasonal indices of abundance

and distribution, and, from these, key indicator species over time.

Long-term sampling programs that measure contaminants in the water

column, sediments and marine organisms, such as NOAA’s National Status

and Trends Program; EPA’s National Estuary Program; and EPA’s National

Coastal Assessment Program.

Orbital sensors are available on satellite missions, such as NOAA’s Polar-

orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites and Geostationary Operational

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Environmental Satellites; DOD’s Defense Meteorological Satellite Program,

NASA’s Landsat, SeaWiFS, Terra, Aqua, TRMM, TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1

satellites; and various commercial ventures. Examples of global in-situ systems

include the Argo buoys, and the U.S. contribution of drifting buoys. Global

systems that combine in-situ and satellite assets include NOAA’s contribution to

Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS) and the U.S. Climate Observation

Program. National in-situ systems include NOAA’s National Data Buoy Center

(NDBC) networks of weather buoys and land-based measurement stations,

National Water Level Observation Network (NWLON), Physical Operational Real-

Time System (PORTS), and NOAA’s Ecosystem Observation System (NEOS);

EPA’s National Coastal Assessment Program and National Estuary Program;

and the USGS stream gauge network.


Observation systems for ocean resources must be continually maintained and

improved. There are still many significant gaps, whether in instrumentation,

temporal and spatial coverage, baseline data and models, communications

networks, and decision-support tools. These have been identified in IOOS and

Global Ocean Observing System reports and are provided in detail in the GEO

Technical Report. Key areas for observational capacity building are deploying

enhanced sensor packages that are more precise and accurate, are automated,

and require less maintenance. Target areas for improvement are biogeochemical

measurements, remotely-sensed technologies including remotely-operated

vehicles, small automated free flyers, and/or modeling to increase the

observational network capacity. Other major gaps include:


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Remote-sensing measurements:

Better procedures for calibrating and representing data in coastal waters

Precise sea surface height and surface vector wind measurements

Finer scale resolution sensors for sea surface temperature, salinity, winds,

ocean color

Continuity in ocean color, winds and sea surface height measurements

Better systems to determine quantity and quality of coastal habitats (inter-

tidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

Need to acquire ocean color imagery (multi- and hyperspectral) of coastal

areas at sufficient frequency and optical resolution to identify and analyze

changes in the spatial distribution and extent of coastal and near-shore

habitats

Integration of in-situ measurements with remotely-sensed observations

Ship-based measurements:

More ship-based measurements of temperature and salinity profiles (need

to equip more ships of opportunity)

Better determination of global fluxes of heat, fresh water and carbon (need

to repeat measurements similar to those from the World Ocean Circulation

Experiment)

Comprehensive and standardized fisheries and protected species surveys,

measuring relative abundance from fishery-independent data to improve

the quality of LMR stock assessments and the understanding of population

dynamics

Better instrumentation for physical, chemical, geological and biological

information

Multi-beam sonar measurements to collect detailed bathymetry and habitat

information, particularly in near-shore and shelf environments, but also in

watersheds and out to the EEZ

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In-situ measurements:

Long-term, continuous measurements of river flow volume at more sites

More sites for water level measurements

More frequent sampling of key properties, such as sediment load, nutrient

concentration and selected chemical contaminants, at more sites

Better systems to determine quantity and quality of coastal habitats (inter-

tidal, seagrasses, kelp beds, water column, sediments)

Expanded coastal network of moored and fixed-platform instruments

at more locations that measure meteorological variables (including

atmospheric deposition) and oceanographic properties (physical, chemical,

biological)

Additional deep ocean observatories and sentinel sites

New remote-sensing/AUV technologies/techniques to obtain fishery-

dependent and fishery-independent data

Innovative and cost effective techniques to eliminate the need for manual

sampling, photography, etc.

Standardization of methodologies for biological community sampling


Currently, evolutionary changes of in-situ measurements of key ocean variables

are expected, with corresponding changes in data communication and local

initial data processing (QA/QC checks for example). More accurate and

comprehensive remote-sensing of key variables in coastal regions is expected

in the next generation of U.S. satellites (GOES-R, NPOESS), aircraft, ships and

AUVs.

National and international partnerships involving ocean resource data will be

key to addressing ocean observation gaps. U.S. Federal agencies and the

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U.S. ocean research community have played lead roles in development of the

IOOS and GOOS, global and basin scale satellite systems and the development

and implementation of international research programs of global scope,

including WOCE, JGOFS, TOGA, CLIVAR, SOLAS, CEOS, and IMBER. These

efforts do much to lay the foundations for the partnering required to achieve

the necessary coverage of the global ocean and of coastal waters regions.

These ties will need to be continued and strengthened. Strengthening and

formalization of critical international partnerships is also needed, so that global

coverage and open access to all nations’ ocean data are assured.

Because there are many gaps and limited resources, comprehensive analysis

and planning is needed to determine the location and attributes of existing and

planned observing systems, and where to fill gaps for the greatest benefit. In

the interim, maintaining existing systems and integrating data that are currently

available into standardized formats, will provide users rapid and easy data

access. Developing new products that combine available data sets are also

high priority actions to consider. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth

observations in the Protecting and Monitoring Ocean Resources area, as well

as for a list of references, please see the Protecting and Monitoring Ocean

Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.

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Section 4: Understand, Assess, Predict, Mitigate, And Adapt To Climate Variability And Change

1. The State of Earth Observations for Climate

Several new Earth observing satellites, suborbital systems, surface networks,

reference sites, and process studies are now producing unprecedented high-

quality data that have led to major new insights about the Earth-climate system.

The United States is now contributing to the development and operation

of several global observing systems which collectively attempt to combine

the data streams from both research and operational observing platforms

to provide for a comprehensive measure of climate system variability and

climate change processes. These systems provide a baseline Earth observing

system and include: Earth observing satellites; the global component of the

Integrated Ocean Observing System; the Global Climate Observing System

(GCOS) sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization; the Global

Ocean Observing System sponsored by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic

Commission; and the Global Terrestrial Observing System sponsored by the

Food and Agriculture Organization. Coordination of Federal acquisition of

climate information, and support for its application, is a required ongoing

activity of Federal agencies that participate in the Climate Change Science

Program (CCSP) and the Climate Change Technology Program (CCTP), under

the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) of the National

Science and Technology Council (NSTC).

Earth observations are urgently needed by Earth system models. Earth

observation models are scientists’ primary tools for: (1) integration of

observations into a comprehensive analysis of the climate system; (2)


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forecasting of the climate system on multiple

time/space scales; and (3) simulation of the

impact of a particular gap or enhancement

of GEOSS. Existing Earth system models (for

example, from GFDL, NSIPP, GMAO, NCAR,

NCEP, and those of our international partners)

are now transitioning to an improved architecture,

the Earth System Modeling Framework (see

http://www.esmf.ucar.edu/), that will enable improved

incorporation of new observations, comparison

of multiple models, and testing and validation of

new approaches to climate modeling.

Required observed variables include benchmark large-scale climate

observations such as the total radiative energy output from the Sun that drives

the Earth’s climate system, the Earth’s global average surface temperature,

the atmospheric concentration of CO2 and other atmospheric constituents, as

well as climate variables such as precipitation, land use, and land cover, that

undergo regional and local changes that have significant environmental and

human impacts. In order to meet climate requirements, monitoring systems

for climate must adhere to the 10 GCOS climate monitoring principles listed in

the CCSP Strategic Plan. For satellite systems, CCSP specifies an additional 10

principles to ensure that observations meet the required stringent standards of

calibration and sampling necessary for useful climate applications.

Another critical challenge is to maintain current observing capabilities that

already exist in each of these areas. For example, maintenance of the

Climatic Functional Requirements:

Improved knowledge of Earth’s past and present climate, including natural variability, and understanding of causes of observed variability and change

Climate system variables that specify the state, forcings, and feedbacks

Reduced uncertainty in Earth’s climate change forecasts

Integrated observations from operational and research observing systems

Better understanding of the sensitivity and adaptability of natural and managed ecosystems

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observational record of stratospheric ozone is essential so that the effects of

climate change on the nature and timing of expected ozone recovery can be

discerned. Other key variables requiring maintenance include radiative energy

fluxes of the Sun and Earth, atmospheric carbon dioxide, and global surface

temperature. Since the value of existing climate datasets greatly increases as the

record is extended in time, it is imperative that existing observing capabilities

be maintained and improved, while at the same time new requirements are

incorporated.


A system that integrates atmospheric, oceanographic, terrestrial, cryospheric

and cross-cutting observations does not currently exist, per se. However, many

components are available. For example, GCOS is a fairly well documented

but not completely implemented international approach that has a process

to identify climate requirements. GCOS is intended to provide a focused set

of observations from a subset of established measurement sites that are

considered to have sufficient climate history and spatial distribution. The system

discussed here, however, goes beyond GCOS. The CCSP has expanded the

initial inventory of important climate observations to encompass the needs of

research and applications related to the global cycles of carbon, water, energy,

and biogeochemical constituents; atmospheric composition; and changes in

land use.

A current inventory of U.S. systems contributing to global climate observing,

and related to the atmospheric, oceanic, and terrestrial climate subsystems, can


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be found in the U.S. Detailed National Report on Systematic Observations for

Climate.


The GCOS list of essential climate variables can be found in the GCOS Second

Adequacy Report, April 2003. This set of required observables provides

an excellent baseline, but will clearly need to be augmented. For example,

incoming solar irradiance is listed, but also needed are in-situ measurements of

profiles of radiative fluxes in the atmosphere. Additional extensions are needed

for atmosphere, ocean and terrestrial variables. A process for updating these

variables needs to be established as we learn more about the Earth’s climatic

system.


GCOS, in consultation with its partners, is developing an implementation plan,

if fully implemented, will provide most of the observations of essential climate

variables detailed in the GCOS Second Adequacy Report. As the U.S. plan

for climate observations moves forward, it should strive to build on the GCOS

Implementation plan (Implementation Plan for the Global Observing System

for Climate in Support of the UNFCCC, GCOS-92, WMO/TD 1219, 136pp.) by

addressing the following elements over the near-term (2-4 years), mid-term (4-7

years), and long-term (7-10 years).

Maintenance and Standards A high priority is to maintain and extend the records

of key climate variables such as global carbon dioxide, ozone, temperature, and

other essential climate variables now being monitored by current systems. The


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climate quality of these records must be assured by adherence to the GCOS

climate monitoring principles, as extended by the CCSP Strategic Plan to cover

satellite systems.

Modeling and Integration Continued development and improvement in

climate analyses and periodic reanalysis is required for integration of climate

observations. Continued development of ensemble forecasting for climate is

needed for applying and evaluating observations, and for better definition of

requirements for future observations.

A detailed phase-in plan will be needed to provide efficient integrated

implementation, to address all climate change challenge themes within realistic

budget constraints, and to take advantage where possible of governmental and

non-governmental partnerships.

Near-term (2-4 years):

Land/Ecosystems/Human Dimensions Improve monitoring, measuring,

and mapping of land use and land cover, and the management of these data;

determine cycling of nutrients such as nitrogen and how these nutrients interact

with the carbon cycle; move forward on plans to transition Landsat-type data

collection to an operational platform.

Polar/Feedback Enhance capacity to observe land and sea ice parameters

including ice thickness; develop continuous high-resolution altimetry over the

ice sheets, and SAR capability to monitor glacial advance/decline; improve

resolution of global gravity measurements; integrate modeling of global climate

and glaciers/ice sheets.

Aerosol Reduce uncertainties in the changing aerosol radiative forcing of

climate. This requires reduced uncertainty in the sources and sinks of aerosols

and their precursors, in aerosol solar absorption, and in aerosol effects on cloud

radiative fluxes and precipitation. Direct observations of aerosol physical and

chemical properties and their interaction with clouds and precipitation are


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urgently needed to estimate the aerosol forcing directly from observations and

to improve model treatments of aerosol forcing.

Water Planned satellite measurements and focused field studies to better

characterize water vapor in the climate-critical area of the tropical tropopause

(the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere)

Carbon Determine North American and oceanic carbon sources and sinks;

the impact of land-use change and resource management practices on carbon

sources and sinks; secure the measurements needed for the North American

Carbon Program; enhance the ocean carbon observing network.

Mid-Term (4-7 years):

Water Improve accuracy and global diurnal sampling of precipitation and water

vapor to identify trends in the frequency, intensity, and duration of the water

cycle; improved global/regional ocean and terrestrial observing systems and

data exchange; improved technology (satellites and in situ, including suborbital,

surface, and sub-surface) to measure soil moisture and evapotranspiration;

improved observations and modeling of water vapor-cloud-climate-radiation

feedback processes; closure of terrestrial hydrological budgets; impacts

of climate change on the global/regional water cycle; and studies related to

physical, biological, and socioeconomic processes to facilitate efficient water

resources management.

Radiation Budget Provide for continuity of solar and Earth-emitted radiation

budget observations at the top-of-atmosphere and surface, to continue the

satellite record that began with Nimbus-7 in 1978, continues with current

Earth Observing System platforms, and is planned to be extended by NPOESS

satellite missions beginning after 2010. Equally important is to maintain the

related network of surface stations such as the Baseline Surface Radiation and

Atmospheric Radiation Measurement sites, and the USDA UVB Monitoring and

Research Network. In addition, improve the accuracy and stability of current

radiometers and better characterize the existing historical record of radiation

budget measurements.


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Long-term (7-10 years):

Temperature Reducing uncertainties in the evaluation of temperature trends

will require: (1) implementing an improved climate monitoring system designed

to ensure the continuity and quality of critically needed measurements of

temperature, and concentrations of aerosols and trace gases: and (2) making

raw and processed atmospheric measurements accessible in a form that enables

a number of different groups to replicate and experiment with the processing

of the more widely disseminated data sets such as the Microwave Sounder Unit

(MSU) tropospheric temperature record. Multiple independent atmospheric

sounding systems (for example,, microwave, infrared, and GPS occultation) will

produce atmospheric temperature and water vapor fields that are more accurate

and reliable than any one sounding system by itself.

Paleoclimate Enhance and where possible regularly update paleoclimate

observations and data management systems to generate a comprehensive set

of variables needed for climate change research; enhance tree ring, coral and

ocean core records. Gaps in paleoclimate observations can be better addressed

by enhancements in: (1) 500-2000 year long coral records to reproduce

temperature and salinity in the tropical oceans; (2) high sedimentation rate deep

sea cores; and (3) marine geochemical proxy records of temperature trends for

the past 2,000 years using corals, mollusks, and marine sediments from around

the globe.

An area requiring future development is the ability to not only track climate

anomalies but also to attribute them on multiple time scales to: (1) external

forcings (solar, volcanoes, atmospheric composition); (2) internal forcings (for

example, El Niño Southern Oscillation, Sea Surface Temperatures and ocean

heat content, soil moisture anomalies, state of vegetation, and sea ice); and (3)

natural variability (essentially unpredictable).

Analysis and planning is envisioned as a major part of these activities,

so as to maintain and advance existing systems and address gaps in


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observations. Creation of new systems will involve the requirements of

users, and the need for access to data and results in a timely fashion. The

development of decision support tools will help the diverse user community

understand results. A feedback loop between users and system developers will

further optimize observations and the utility of support tools.

Climate observations need to be taken in ways that satisfy the climate

monitoring principles and ensure long-term continuity and ability to discern

small but persistent signals. The health of the monitoring system must be

tracked and resources identified to fix problems. Satellite observations must

be calibrated and validated, with orbital decay and drift effects fully dealt with,

and adequate overlap to ensure continuity. Reanalysis of the records must be

institutionalized along with continual assessment of impacts of new observing

and analysis systems. Such an end-to-end Earth information system will be

key to the success of the U.S. effort in supporting the GEOSS over the next 10

years. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Climatic

Variability area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Climatic

Variability Reference Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 5: Support Sustainable Agriculture And Forestry, And Combat Land Degradation

1. The State of Earth Observations for Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combating Land Degradation

The state of agriculture and forestry observations continues to mature, as

technology provides us with more tools to monitor ground cover. Partnerships

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Districts, Resource Conservation and Development

Councils, state and local conservations agencies and

organizations, non-governmental organizations, state,

local and tribal governments, rural communities,

businesses, universities and others. Cooperation

among these organizations is increasing agricultural

productivity and efficiency, conserving natural

resources, improving the environment, and enhancing

quality of life for rural areas.

However, we are realizing the weaknesses of Earth observations from non-

integrated, stand-alone observations. Creating useful information out of

disparate databases is extremely time consuming, and is therefore often

ignored. Inferences based upon one source of data can prove misleading to

decision makers. Integrating various key measurements of the ecosystem will

provide a truer perception of the actual environment, leading to better decisions

on how to manage our scare resources.


Observation systems for monitoring agriculture, forestry and land cover exist on

a variety of scales. Some of the observations currently being used include:

Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combating Land Degradation Functional

Requirements:

Land Cover Assessment

Change Detection

Soil Moisture Content

Species Composition Surveys

Linking Observations Across Different Scales

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Land cover and land use within, and surrounding, a particular landscape

or ecosystem: the required detail for meeting program objectives ranges

from highly specific (crop type, species, plant community, etc.) to

general (agricultural, forested, urban, etc.). Definitions of land cover

vary by application and by spatial resolution, as do requirements for

accuracy. Imagery ranging from panchromatic aerial photography to coarse

resolution multispectral satellite data are used for land cover and land use

analysis.

Change in land cover, and plant, and animal species composition: it is

important to assess short term changes, such as within a growing season,

and long term ranging, from years to decades or more.

Field data in the form of animal specimen locality records and vegetation

plots are used for modeling habitat distribution, and calibrating

remotely-sensed spatial data, as well as for validation and accuracy

assessment. Field data for operational purposes are frequently the most

expensive to acquire.

Topography in the form of a digital elevation map (DEM): This is commonly

used as an element of base maps. Accuracy requirements range from

sub-meter to tens of meters. Photogrammetric methods still dominate

acquisition. RADAR, LIDAR and kinematic GPS are increasingly used

and may replace photogrammetric methods. Watershed boundaries are

especially important to producers, land managers, and governmental

programs focused on soil and water quality issues.

Soil series maps and USGS 1:24,000 scale maps depicting waterways,

and cultural features, etc. are common sources of base maps for many

applications. Use extends beyond suitability for planting to susceptibility to

erosion, construction of infrastructure including access routes, etc.

Long-term data for change detection, calibration of algorithms, and species

inventory: There is a need to continue converting historical imagery, maps,

field notes, and data sheets to digital form.

Development of infrastructure for land use planning: Highways, pipelines,

and train routes require detailed surveys for optimal placement to minimize

land degradation while maximizing efficient transportation.

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A tool commonly used is the Geographic Information System (GIS). GIS

is employed as a tool during data collection, as a common platform

for assimilating data from multiple sources, conducting analysis, and

communicating information. Data and information are communicated via tables

( statistics) and maps. Digital maps from a GIS can be used to drive variable-

rate within-field planting, irrigation, and agrochemical applications.

Land observation needs range from sub-landscape to global. The time scales

range from hourly to decades. Applications now demand more accurate and

finer scale information as the intensity of land use increases and expands into

less resilient soils, and less favorable climatic conditions. Industry needs are

primarily for higher spatial and temporal resolution. Higher spatial resolution

is also particularly important for many international users. Small cultivation

areas and different cultivation practices of many regions of the world often

make it difficult to ascertain what parts of a landscape are under cultivation by

developing countries.


A few of the omissions in the realm of land observations are either because a

sensor has not been developed, or because deployment of a particular sensor

is limited. This limitation could be due to cost, data archiving problems, or

socio/political reasons. Here is a list of a few omissions we currently have in the

land observation realm:


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A general lack of appropriate spectral resolution measurements by both in

situ and remote-sensing devices. For example, hyperspectral measurements

increase the observed parameters of a given subject from less than 20

bands to over 100 bands. Each band can then be a useful criterion to help

discriminate individual objects, be it vegetation, soil types or man-made

surfaces.

Lack of sufficient in-situ sensors spatially and temporally. Currently there

are large gaps in both physical area and in frequency of measurement for

many essential parameters. Examples are soil moisture, precipitation, and

air quality. Our current systems attempt to mitigate these losses using

techniques such as kriging (a geostatistical approach to modeling), but

extrapolations of conditions based on a few readings is not as accurate as

many in situ measurements

There is a need to move some of the current sensor systems in use today

from a research status to an operational status. This is necessary to

ensure continuity of experimental observations that have been proven to

provide critically important information. Some of the sensors used today

are actually research sensors, with no identified follow-on system or even

maintenance of the existing system.

Weather and climate-related observations, such as incoming solar radiation

and CO2 flux, used in models ranging from local to global in scope, are

spatially sparse. The measurements are becoming increasingly important

globally, and the demand for better modeling means more observations.

Computer modeling of various Earth processes continues to be refined.

Validation of these complex models will need sensors with increasing

resolution and density to substantiate or refute current theories.

Site-specific observations are often required due to the complexities of

certain ecosystems. Optimization and validation of models for these specific

locations is critical. Interdisciplinary teams will be required to develop the

technologies for efficient and reliable assessments of these areas.

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Data distribution will be one of the most challenging tasks to overcome. As

the increased sensor capacities increase the volume of data collected, it will

be even harder to obtain data in a quick and reliable way. How to protect

and insure the integrity of the data over time is also a huge challenge.

Development of convenient and accurate decision support systems that

autonomously collate this raw data and process it into useful information

is another gap that needs to be closed. Only then can we truly understand

what the data are telling us.


Currently our existing baseline observations systems are being enhanced in

resolution and in spectral discrimination, mainly due to technology advances.

This is true for our operational systems, such as the GOES weather satellites.

There have been other satellite missions recently launched, such as NASA’s

Terra Program which are able to perform such functions as surface temperature

readings day and night, vegetation indices corrected for atmosphere, soil,

and directional effects, and aerosol properties defined as optical thickness,

particle size, and mass loading. There is increased recognition of the value

of automated in situ systems for observing the processes and state of land,

water, and air resources. As the sophistication and reliability of systems such

as micrometeorological stations, soil moisture and temperature sensors, and

sunphotometers increase, the costs have come down. This provides greater

opportunities to increase spatial and temporal coverage.

Mechanisms for data delivery of observations from systems to users will be

the extremely challenging. Questions as to the long-term storage of data, who

has responsibility for data recovery, and how reliable feedback loops for data

quality all must be answered. For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth

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observations in the Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry, and Combating Land

Degradation area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Sustainable

Agriculture and Forestry, and Combating Land Degradation Reference

Document on the IWGEO website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 6: Understand The Effect Of Environmental Factors On Human Health And Well-being

1. The State of Earth Observations for Human Health and Well-Being

Observations providing information for human health and well-being are

essential for human life, economic growth to support life, and to foster methods

to assure the vitality of ecosystems that support life. From a social and

economic perspective, observations to generate information for human uses,

such as sustainable development, industry, agriculture, water quality and waste

disposal, air quality, and the protection of human and ecosystem health, are

critical. With continued growth in human population and associated resource

use, the need for enhanced observations, information, tools and models,

and decision support systems to inform decision-makers and the public is

paramount.

The Human Health and Well-Being discipline is on the cusp of having a

number of opportunities coming into place to advance this societal benefit. The

future is bright and a number of opportunities are suggested below and in the

associated technical reference document. Examples of these opportunities

include the air quality field, where AirNow/AQI predictions are carried in daily

papers. In addition, opportunities are emerging to deal with such air and water



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quality issues as asthma, water quality for

recreational swimming and harmful algal blooms.

Monitoring of the global availability, use, and

cost of resources, as well as their influences

on human health and the environment, is an

important requirement for developing sound

decisions. Observation and analysis of consumption

and supply through the integration of technologies

and sustainable design techniques is increasingly important for managing

resources and decision-making that influences human health and well-being.

These parameters of interest vary geographically, making local and regional

monitoring critical. Future growth of the world’s economies will depend on

sustained, secure, and reasonably priced resources, as well as accurate

forecasts of needs. Improved forecasting can help reduce costs of many

activities. For example, it is known that the use of improved weather forecasting

accuracy is critical for food production and its timely, safe and cost effective

transport to people.

The beneficiaries of improved monitoring, information, and decision support

systems will be society as a whole. However, in order to assess the efficacy of

existing systems, and identify gaps and future needs, we first must understand

who the critical users are, and identify their needs.

The observing systems, data systems, associated tools, and the community of

users of the information will constitute the components of an Earth information

system, which is the end goal of the GEOSS. The observing systems must be

Human Health and Well-Being Functional Requirements:

Increased coverage and resolution of observations

Observations of environmental elements not presently observed

Issue-specific observations, especially those related to air and water quality

Long-term, sustained observations of ground cover, and air and water quality

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linked to an integrated data system that provides full and open access, which in

turn links to tools that support the generation and access to information needed

by the health community including researchers, service providers, and policy

makers.

Users of data and information include government agencies, industry,

universities, public institutions, non-governmental organizations, and the

public. Applications include research and operations, policy for adaptation

and mitigation, as well as decision making by businesses, organizations,

and individuals, applied in local, regional, national, and international

contexts. Coordination of Federal acquisition of information and support for

applications is an ongoing activity.


Several new Earth observing satellites, airborne or suborbital systems, in-situ

or surface networks, reference sites, and process studies are now producing

unprecedented high quality data that have or will lead to new insights about

human health and well-being.

A number of groups collectively attempt to combine the data streams from

both research and operational observing levels or platforms to provide for a

comprehensive measure of variability and change processes. These systems

provide baseline Earth observations and they include NIH, EPA, CDC, NASA,

NOAA, USGS, USDA, and others employing ground level, airborne or mobile

level, and Earth observing satellites in a variety of system-integrated programs

or activities.


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A critical challenge is to maintain and operate current observing capabilities that

already exist. For example, maintenance of observational records at all levels

is essential so that the effects of change in, say, air quality and drinking water

quality can be discerned. Other key variables requiring maintenance include,

for example, measures of disease, population characteristics, food production

and distribution. Since the value of existing datasets greatly increases as

the record is extended in time, it is imperative that existing capabilities be

maintained and improved, while at the same time new requirements are

incorporated.

Due to the multiple factors involved, scientists from different disciplines

have been or may be called upon to work together. To create an integrated

observation system for both environmental and health research, management,

and decision-making communities, partnerships are essential. Strong

partnerships help ensure that the appropriate data sets are collected, integrated,

interpreted, and used properly. It will be critical to develop a system of

collaborative partnerships among agencies, state and regional governments,

tribal nations, and the public to create a useable system. Additionally, Federal

agencies and partners must encourage consistent practices, interoperability,

and information sharing among state and local agencies that gather data.

Examples of existing partnerships include: NOAA/NWS provides weather

forecasts to CDC staff who are involved in research on the effects of heat waves

and in working with State and Local officials to prevent heat-related morbidity

and mortality. Similarly, HHS and FEMA for their disaster preparedness and

response roles rely on NOAA/NWS to predict the location and severity of

extreme weather events. NIAID and NASA have an interagency agreement to

support training for African scientists in the use of new technologies for the


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control of malaria, to determine if remotely-sensed information could be used to

develop predictive models for risk of malaria transmission.

Bacterial contamination is monitored by local public health agencies.

NOAA, EPA and other Federal agencies assist by providing updated

methodologies. National databases on bacterial contamination are updated

by collecting data from state agencies that, in turn, collect it from the local

agencies that made the measurements. The USGS National Biological

Information Infrastructure (NBII), which is composed of multiple sector

partnerships (Federal, state, and local agencies; universities; private industries,

and non-governmental organizations), provides increased access to biological

data and information on our nation’s plants, animals, and ecosystems to

a variety of audiences including researchers, natural resource and health

managers, decision-makers, and the public.

Environmental monitoring that crosses national borders is often best

coordinated by the appropriate organizations. For example, the international

aspects of bacterial water quality monitoring are best handled through the

World Health Organization or, in the Americas, through the Pan American

Health Organization. New partners from the remote-sensing and environmental

community could provide useful contributions to those monitoring activities.

Application of enhanced in-situ and remote-sensing data and techniques

to air quality evaluations is very promising, and a potential area for early,

demonstrable results. Efforts like the State of New York GRID air quality

forecasting system, a joint effort between the State, EPA and NOAA, should be

encouraged to demonstrate the promise of forecasting conditions for the public

and decision-makers, but also track the results to see if forecasting produces


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improved air quality by people and governments making decisions that reduce

pollution.


It is necessary to enable the easy transfer of environmental information to

researchers, response communities, and decision makers. Thus, it is important

to develop user-friendly systems for quick access to Earth science data for

applications in human health and well-being. However, many factors have

hindered the use of space- and ground-based data for health applications.

Some of the most important are:

Lack of appropriate spatial, temporal and spectral resolution measurements

by the current ground or in-situ and satellite sensors.

Lack of good communication and understanding between the data producer

community and users in the health and environment fields of research.

Absence of continuous temporal and spatial data sets required for the study

of specific diseases or disorders, including human activity patterns.

Access difficulties to data and value-added products due to differences in

format, resolution, projection, computer systems and lack of an integrated

system with generally accepted standards for unified studies.

Insufficient technology transfer methods to move from research to

operational environments, and need for an information system, enterprise

architecture, and/or systems of web portals.

Inadequate development of remote-sensing and ground-based methods to

continuously monitor speciated environmental pollutants or their indicators

affecting human health.

Lack of ongoing observation systems available for collecting human activity

or human exposure data.

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Lack of very high spatial resolution sensors for monitoring mosquito-

breeding sites.


Focused efforts are needed to improve technology transfer and development

of user-friendly tools, indicators, models and decision support systems for

mass distribution. Effective implementation requires promotion of both public

and private sector use and dissemination of observation data/products; as

well as effective technology transfer to extend the combined use of ground or

surface measures, remote-sensing, and models and decision support systems

for the needs of decision-makers and the public. This, in turn, requires the

development of information systems and/or enterprise architectures and

systems of web portals, all to communicate more efficiently observations,

information, indicators, models and decision support systems.

In particular, the combination of in-situ measures and remote-sensing

data along with GIS, GPS, models, indicators and others are fundamental

tools. These tools can facilitate the planning, analysis, surveillance and

intervention in the control and management of infectious diseases outbreaks,

air and water quality decisions, food security and transportation, and the like. To

take full advantage of these technologies, it is necessary to be fully integrated to

benefit the decision-maker and public in timely and cost-effective ways.

Many infectious diseases are greatly impacted by the weather and by

patterns of agriculture. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of agriculture

and vegetation cover remains a key need. Improved resolution will assist to

identify, understand, and predict crop yields and evaluate the scale of potential

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problems in the food supply and its transportation, such as crop failure and

famine or unexpectedly high yields that may presage a booming rodent or

insect population and associated disease risks.

It is important to note that most research linking environmental exposure to

the increased prevalence or exacerbation of asthma and allergy is based on

in-situ measurements in the local environment. The further integration of

remote observations, models and decision support systems will lead to a better

understanding of causative conditions and related decision-making. Other

needs which are being addressed include:

Adequate data archival capabilities to allow for a better understanding of

the development of chronic diseases and diseases resulting from long-term

environmental exposures.

More extensive databases on human activities to integrate with pollutant

concentrations to estimate exposures, and particularly so for air and water

quality.

Integration and display of data from multiple scientific disciplines in a

meaningful way in order to create a successful integrated observation

system that is useable by members of the environment; human, animal, and

plant health communities; and by decision makers.

Appropriate spatial and temporal resolution data to relate directly to

exposure or human health.

Archive model outputs for use in future health and epidemiological studies

to determine relationships between environmental exposures and disease.

Continued research on use of genomics in monitoring for environmental

factors that influence human health and well-being

Current in-situ and remote-sensing technologies offer great potential for

human health studies. It is important to maintain and enhance existing

systems. The advent of geostationary sensor systems with improved spatial

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and spectral resolution would allow study of air, weather, wetland, water and

related phenomena. Maintenance and enhanced day/night sensing capability

is important in the UV, visible, near, middle and far infrared, as well as the

microwave regions. A denser network of air and water quality observations

would also improve analysis of human health issues.

The U.S. should also increase capacity for developing country scientists through

training programs and collaborative research programs. Examples of existing

programs include the Fogarty International Center at NIH/HHS International

Research Training in Environmental and Occupational Health Program and its

Health, Environment and Economic Development Program now operating in 11

countries. NASA, NOAA, EPA (STAR grants and fellowships), and other Federal

agencies also have programs for capacity building in related areas.

For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Human

Health and Well-Being area, as well as for a list of references, please see the

Human Health and Well-Being Reference Document on the IWGEO website at

http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 7: Develop The Capacity To Make Ecological Forecasts

1. The State of Earth Observations for Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting

The state of Earth observations for application to ecosystems and ecological

forecasting are less mature than for many of the other societal benefits. While a

number of activities exist, which are based on years of international and national

collaboration, many more needs are awaiting to be addressed. It is now widely

recognized that ecosystem forecasting is critical to reducing environmental



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threats, maintaining a healthy economy, and to

sustaining a wide range of ecological services

upon which society depends.

Forecasting species and environmental

changes represent a formidable challenge,

in that the basic mathematics and modeling

approaches for such forecasting are still in

their infancy. Ecosystem complexity and

scaling issues increase error and uncertainty in

forecasting. Ecological forecasting requires the

acquisition of a wide range of environmental data, depending upon the scale

(from micro to macro) of the initiative. Most systems will also require extensive

tools to be developed, or at the very least, enhancements to existing models.


Ecological forecasting is an integral part of many of the goals of the other

societal themes, and to the associated user communities. These efforts

are especially related to: (1) terrestrial, coastal, and marine ecosystems, (2)

understanding, assessing, and mitigating the impacts of climate variability

and change, (3) identifying options for sustainable agriculture and reversing

and combating land degradation and desertification, (4) promoting human

health and well-being, (5) protecting water resources, and (6) understanding,

monitoring, and preserving biological diversity.

Many organizations and government agencies need Earth observation data

and models to forecast changes in important ecological resources and

Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting Functional Requirements:

Understand ecosystem composition, structure, and function

Monitor status and trends in ecosystem conditions and important ecological processes

Develop and improve ecological prediction and interpretation tools

Develop and test a comprehensive forecasting framework through pilot and case studies


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processes. These include city, county, and watershed organizations that

are trying to evaluate smart growth options balanced by the vulnerability of

ecological resources. There is also a need to evaluate near-term environmental

conditions, as well as longer-term impacts and degradation. Other users

will be managers of Federal, state, and tribal lands and waters charged with

maintaining the viability of these areas and complying with the mandates of

relevant environmental legislation, such as the Clean Water Act, Endangered

Species Act, and National Environmental Policy Act.

Currently, there are a number of monitoring programs that collect information on

biological, physical, and chemical attributes of ecosystems, some of which are

regional and national in scale. Data from these programs have been used to

develop, calibrate, apply, and refine ecological models.

One example of a successful and extremely relevant partnership can be found

in the Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics (MRLC) consortium that was

formed in 1992 between several U.S. Federal agencies in order to share the

cost of acquiring satellite-based remotely-sensed data for their environmental

monitoring programs. The MRLC resulted in the National Land Cover Data set

and other successful programs, including the Coastal Change Analysis Project,

the USGS National Water-Quality Assessment Program and the Gap Analysis

Project.

Many observation systems are valuable. Radar system measurements are

used to assess surface roughness, subsidence, three-dimensional aspects of

vegetation canopies, biomass, and wetland extent. LIDARs represent another

active sensing technology that holds much promise for the remote detection

of vegetation structure and complexity, as well as biomass. LIDAR data can


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provide fine-scale estimates of vegetation canopy structure and elevation

profiles, which are important input variables in ecological and hydrological

process models as applied to relatively small areas

Hyperspectral measures are used to detect relatively fine-scale patterns of

vegetation species distributions and structure, as well as the biochemical

makeup of vegetation, soil, and surface waters. Some see the possibility of

developing systems capable of remotely fingerprinting biological phenomena, in

terms of both taxonomy and condition or health, arising from this technology.

Airborne digital multi-spectral photography provides vital information on

vegetation characteristics, stream morphology, coral reef extent, coastline

characteristics, and many other Earth and marine features and biophysical

variables at relatively high spectral and spatial resolutions.


Forecasting is fundamental to understanding what needs to be done to

avoid human and environmental disasters and to promote sustainable

development. In this regard, forecasting plays an important role in early warning

and risk assessment. Generally, managers, stakeholders, and decision-makers

require two types of ecological forecasts: (1) short-term forecasts from 3-24

months and (2) longer-term forecasts from 5-50 years. Short-term forecasts

give early warning of events and conditions that might affect key economic

activities and human safety. These “near-real time” data are also used to

target areas that need more detailed data collections. Long term forecasts

are necessary to identify areas of high concern. The data required for these


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forecasts will come from observations which can typically fall into two general

classes:

spatially continuous biophysical data derived from remote-sensing and

other sources

field or site data on specific ecological and hydrologic processes and/or

state variables

Site-specific data are needed to measure and estimate important ecological

and hydrologic variables across space and time. These data can then be

related empirically, via process or mechanistic models, to spatially continuous

biophysical data. Gaps in data of these sorts can be categorized into six general

classes: (1) field and site data (in-situ), (2) remotely-sensed and other spatial

data, (3) modeling, (4) data and system interoperability/data standardization

and management, (5) technology transfer, and (6) education and capacity

building gaps. Each of these issues needs to be resolved in order to improve

and extend our ability to conduct ecological forecasting.

There are also gaps in measurement variables, at a variety of scales that need

to be addressed to improve ecosystem forecasting across the globe:

vegetation indices, leaf area index, photosynthetically active radiation

evapotranspiration, net photosynthesis and primary productivity

land surface temperature and emissivity, fires and burning biomass

land cover change and vegetation cover conversion, invasive species

snow cover, sea ice cover

ocean chlorophyll concentration, ocean chlorophyll fluorescence, and ocean

primary productivity, and sea surface temperature

marine and lake organic matter concentrations

cloud characteristics from satellites

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Other specific gaps and recommendations have been identified, here, and in

other societal benefits areas. They include:

Complete national digital databases on soils and geology at a scale of

1:100,000.

Acquire in-situ and remotely-sensed data needed to measure status and

changes in: (1) land cover and land use, (2) net primary land and oceanic

productivity, (3) carbon balance, and (4) water balance.

Deploy sensors that will measure the canopy structure of vegetation.

Deploy sensors that will measure water quality and temperature for the wide

range of water bodies across the U.S.

Continued deployment of a SAR satellite platform.

Continued deployment a comparable ocean color sensor.

Digitize existing biological data using NBII taxonomic and other formal data

standards.

Standardize, convert and integrate existing biological and ecological data to

easily accessible digital accessible formats.

Extensive research is being conducted at universities and institutes to integrate

field and remotely-sensed data through development of dynamic, multi-scale

process models. For example, there is a need for shorter-term forecasting

(daily to monthly) in a direct sense at the local level where many decisions

or scenarios are made. These forecasts should account for perturbations

from large-scale atmospheric and other forcing variables. Current weather

generators, which are commonly used to provide input to management and

ecological models, could be improved by including perturbations and resulting

influences.

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Satellite remote-sensing of the Earth’s surface has only been in existence for

just over 30 years, Archives of photographic imagery (while not contiguous at

the national level) extend much further back in time to the early 1930s and

1940s. As such, they provide an invaluable time series for understanding

landscape changes and associated phenomena. Preservation and digitization

of these archives and the unique information they hold is of the utmost

importance.

Although there are a number of deployed Earth observations systems across

the U.S, including individual site monitoring stations and airborne and satellite

imagery, lack of interoperability, coordination, and enforcement of Federal

Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) data standards within and among these

programs prevent optimal use of resulting data and information for ecological

forecasting. New approaches in data mining and networking should improve

data integration and modeling to a certain extent, but there are a number of

issues related to data collection and availability that will limit the success of

such programs. Certain types and scales of ecological forecasting are possible

given current data and capabilities, and these are being pursued to fill gaps.

For a more in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Ecosystems

and Ecological Forecasting area, as well as for a list of references, please see

the Ecosystems and Ecological Forecasting Reference Document on the IWGEO

website at: http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.



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Section 8: Protect And Monitor Water Resources

1. The State of Earth Observations for Protecting and Monitoring Water Resources

Earth observations for water availability and quality should include

measurements of the fluxes and storage of water in a watershed and its

underlying aquifer system; precipitation, streamflow, lake and reservoir

storage, water quality, evaporation and transpiration, soil moisture, ground-

water storage, ground-water recharge and discharge, and withdrawals for

various uses should all be measured. Snowfall is of particular interest to

water-resources managers because of the seasonal storage of water in the

snowpack. Water quality concentrations and loads of various significant natural

and anthropogenic contaminants must also be measured to determine their

impact on water availability and on aquatic habitats in freshwater, estuarine, and

marine environments. Most of these measurements must be made using in

situ sensors, sampling, and manual measurement techniques, with only some

available from remote-sensing. Temporal variability and long-term trends in

these measures of availability must be recorded and

documented.


Observations for monitoring and protecting water

resources are made by several Federal agencies. The

observations include monitoring of fluxes and storage

in the various components of the hydrologic cycle, and

monitoring of chemical and biological characteristics

Water Availability and Quality Functional Requirements:



Rapid tasking of other data sources


Rapid generation of accurate information and forecasts, and


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of water resources. There are some examples of strong coordination and

collaboration among agencies, but it is currently not possible to go to one single

source for comprehensive water-resources monitoring information. Notable

examples of water-resources monitoring programs are described below:

Precipitation Precipitation quantity monitoring is done by NOAA using a

combination of ground-based observation stations and remote-sensing. The

stations provide national coverage at a resolution of about ¼ degree of latitude

and longitude.

Snow NOAA’s National Operational Hydrologic Remote-sensing Center

(NOHRSC) provides remotely-sensed and modeled hydrology products for the

conterminous U.S. and Alaska. The national and regional snow analyses provide

a daily synoptic overview of snow conditions for the conterminous U.S. as well

as for the 18 U.S. snow regions at a higher resolution. The snow analyses are

text descriptions of daily snow accumulation based on snow observations and

modeled snowpack characteristics. NOHRSC provides both the meteorological

observations of snowfall and snow on the ground as well as the snowfall and

snow accumulation simulated by the NOHRSC snow model. Additionally, the

U.S. Department of Agriculture installs, operates, and maintains an extensive,

automated system called SNOTEL (SNOwpack TELemetry) to collect snowpack

and related climatic data. The system measures snowpack in the mountains

of the West and forecasts the water supply. The programs began with manual

measurements of snow courses; but since 1980, SNOTEL has used telemetered

data from 600 automated sensors in 11 western states including Alaska.

Precipitation Quality The National Atmospheric Deposition Program

coordinates an interagency network of 250 precipitation quality monitoring

stations to monitor the acidity of precipitation as well as other constituents

such as nitrates, sulfates, and ammonia. Annually the data are disseminated in

several forms, including national maps.

Streamflow The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) operates a national network

of about 7,000 telemetered stream gauges. This network is supported jointly


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with other Federal, state, and local governments. The number of gauges in the

network has been declining slightly in recent years as Federal and state budgets

have become tighter. The database is updated about 8 times per year at each

station.

Surface Water Quality There are numerous Federal, regional, state, tribal,

and local monitoring programs for ambient surface water quality conditions

and compliance monitoring. Most of these data are input to EPA’s Storage

and Retrieval (STORET) database. EPA summarizes state and Federal water-

quality data biennally in the National Water Quality Inventory Report to Congress

(305(b) report) to inform Congress and the public about general water quality

conditions in the United States. This document characterizes water quality,

identifies widespread water quality problems of national significance, and

describes various programs implemented to restore and protect waters. It

characterizes water body types (rivers, streams, creeks, lakes, ponds, reservoirs,

bay, estuaries, coastal waters, oceans, and wetlands) as “good”, “threatened”,

or “impaired”, based on sampling results submitted by the states. The USGS

also supports water quality monitoring programs: The National Water Quality

Assessment (NAWQA) program is a nationwide monitoring and assessment tool

that includes a network of 6,100 stream-quality monitoring sites. USGS also

supports a program for modeling surface-water quality, titled SPARROW. This

program relates in-stream water-quality measurements to spatially referenced

characteristics of watersheds, including contaminant sources and factors

influencing terrestrial and stream transport.

Suspended sediment is an important water-quality parameter that is a

controlling factor for many total maximum daily load allocations, as well as for

determining the useful lifespan of many dams and reservoirs. The USGS and

several cooperating agencies have developed a suspended sediment database

that provides daily concentrations and loads of sediment at many locations

around the nation, plus ancillary data.

Lake and Reservoir Storage Data on lake and reservoir storage are included

in the USGS National Water Information System as water-level data. Storage

data are collected for individual projects by reservoir management agencies,


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typically using automated SCADA systems, but are not collected and reported

on a national basis.

Evaporation and Transpiration NOAA collects and disseminates nationwide

evaporation data based on observations at weather stations equipped with

evaporation pans. Some excellent academic and government studies of

evaporation and transpiration are underway.

Soil Moisture The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service also monitors

soil moisture as part of their Soil Moisture/Soil Temperature Pilot project (SM/

STPP), and disseminates a limited set of soil moisture data for the U.S. via the

Soil Climate Analysis Network. NOAA provides soil moisture that is estimated

by a one-layer hydrological model using observed precipitation and temperature.

These data are used for nationwide assessment and prediction purposes. A

more sophisticated soil moisture product is the four-layer soil moisture estimate

calculated in the Land Data Assimilation System (LDAS), based upon the NOAA

four-layer land surface model. The North American LDAS is produced in real

time at NOAA’s National Center for Environmental Prediction, in collaboration

with NASA and university partners. LDAS will lead to more accurate reanalysis

and forecast simulations by numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, which

typically have large errors in stores of soil moisture and energy and in turn,

degrade the accuracy of forecasts.

Ground Water Storage The USGS maintains a network of wells to monitor the

effects of droughts and other climate variability on ground-water levels. The

network consists of a national network of about 150 wells. Some of these have

real-time telemetry, some have continuous records obtained periodically during

field visits, and some have periodic manual measurements.

Drought Monitoring The National Drought Mitigation Center at the University

of Nebraska, in cooperation with NOAA, USDA, and other agencies, assembles

drought-related data from many sources and provides them on a single web site.

There are good efforts underway to extend this drought monitoring to cover all

of North America. Several data products are provided, along with a combined

drought monitor map for the U.S.


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Ground Water Quality Monitoring of ground-water quality is spotty. Most

states have programs for ambient ground-water quality monitoring, but they

are not coordinated as a national network. The USGS National Water Quality

Assessment (NAWQA), which includes ground water, has water-quality data

from 7,000 wells in its data warehouse.

Ground-Water Recharge and Discharge These important components of the

hydrologic cycle are usually estimated rather than measured directly. Availability

and reliability of estimates varies greatly among U.S. aquifers.

Drinking Water The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maintains several

databases with nationwide information about drinking-water systems. The

Safe Drinking Water Information System (SDWIS/FED) contains data about

locations and characteristics of the Nation’s public drinking water systems, and

about violations of drinking-water standards or protocols. SDWIS/FED stores

the information EPA monitors for approximately 175,000 public water systems.

For data on concentrations of contaminants in drinking water, EPA maintains a

National Contaminant Occurrence Database (NCOD). NCOD provides a library of

water sample analytical data (or “samples data”) that EPA is currently using and

has used in the past for analysis, rulemaking, and rule evaluation. The drinking

water sample data, collected at Public Water Systems, are for both regulated

and unregulated contaminants. The data have been extensively checked for data

quality and analyzed for national representative-ness. Within its National Water

Quality Assessment Program, the USGS maintains a database of water quality

data from domestic wells. Domestic wells are not regulated by EPA and do not

contribute data to the EPA databases.

Land Use and Impervious Area Remote-sensing systems such as Landsat and

MODIS provide spatial information covering certain aspects of land use that are

of great importance in understanding, protecting, and predicting the quantity

and quality of our water resources. The measurements include amounts and

types of crops grown, the extent of irrigated land, the types of best-management

practices employed to protect watersheds, various practices related to forestry,

mining, grazing, and urbanization all affect water resources. Of particular

interest is the extent of impervious or paved area in any given watershed, since


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impervious area retards infiltration and contributes to quicker runoff and higher

storm peak flows in streams.

Wetlands The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service monitors wetlands, which are

an important component of the hydrologic system, both biologically and

hydrologically. Wetland maps, developed through a combination of remote-

sensing and ground-truth data, are available in a number of formats.


An important commonality of all of the surface-water related data mentioned

above is the association of specific data with a specific section of a stream in a

network where flow relationships (upstream and downstream) are known. This

spatial information is the core of the National Hydrography Dataset (NHD),

a collaboration of EPA and USGS. NHD is a digital depiction of the stream

reach network of the entire country, with each reach connected to the network

in such a way that flow relationships are known. In many cases, point data

mentioned above are associated with individual stream reaches in the NHD. In

other cases, this association has yet to be made. The NHD is the key to linking

surface water data with other geospatial coverages important to hydrology, such

as digital elevation models (which help to describe drainage area boundaries

and stream slopes), watershed boundaries, land cover and land use, and

impervious area.

One of the important gaps is the monitoring of lake and reservoir water quality,

which was formerly coordinated and funded under the Clean Lakes Program.

Some lake monitoring is encouraged under the implementation of section

319 of the Clean Water Act by EPA and state and local governments. Other

areas are monitored by reservoir management agencies such as the Corps of


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Engineers, the Bureau of Reclamation, the USGS, academic institutions, and

other entities.

Ground water assessments need enhanced measurements, both in total ground

water storage levels, and ground water quality. There are many thousands of

monitoring wells that are measured by a variety of Federal, state, local, and

tribal agencies, but there is little coordination of the monitoring programs. Most

states have programs for ambient ground-water quality monitoring, but they are

not coordinated as a national network.


The report issued by the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy and the U.S.

Ocean Action Plan recommended the development of a national water quality

monitoring network. Though a network of this type will require substantial

coordination and resources, there is strong interest among participating

agencies such as the USGS, EPA, and NOAA. A framework is being developed

by the Advisory Committee on Water Information, through its National Water

Quality Monitoring Council, that will provide a starting point towards the goal

of a national network for water quality. This network would consist of in-situ

measurements of specific constituents, complemented and supplemented by

remotely-sensed data, to define the distribution and intensity of hypoxia, sea-

grass loss, sedimentation, harmful algal blooms and other adverse conditions.

Soil moisture experiments are underway by the USDA and NASA to monitor

soil moisture using remote-sensing satellites. Additionally, there is an effort

underway using NASA’s Aqua satellite and the Japanese ADEOS-II Advanced

Microwave Scanning Radiometer to develop daily soil moisture products.


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In the field of drought monitoring, NOAA has developed a plan, endorsed by the

Western Governors Association, for a National Integrated Drought Information

System that would provide enhanced monitoring capabilities, greater integration

of data related to droughts, and enhanced forecasting capabilities. For a more

in-depth look at the state of Earth observations in the Protecting and Monitoring

Water Resources arena, as well as for a list of references, please see the

Protecting and Monitoring Water Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO

website at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.

Section 9: Monitor And Manage Energy Resources

1. The State of Earth Observations for Monitoring and Managing Energy Resources

Observation systems for energy fall into three broad categories. The first set of

observations relate to the Nation’s consumption of energy. Energy consumption

is tied significantly to weather and climate. Extremes of hot and cold weather

seriously increase our energy consumption. Therefore, weather observations

and prediction provide a tool for energy management. The second broad

category is energy exploration. Earth observations are used extensively in

the search for fossil fuels and are increasingly being

used in the siting and development of renewable

energy sources. The third broad category is

observing the impacts of energy consumption, and

these observations fall mainly within the realm of

atmospheric characterization and climate change

detection. The National Energy Policy outlines policies

to enhance energy security while reducing greenhouse

Energy Resources Functional Requirements:



Time scales of hours, days, seasons, years and decades

Geographic scales including point source, regional, and global scale


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gas emissions and recommends aggressively developing alternative fuels and

hydrogen, advancing carbon sequestration technologies, and promoting energy

efficiency and renewable energy.


Observation systems are currently useful for detecting the consequences

of energy consumption, for determining the availability of traditional energy

resources, and for applicability of alternative energy sources and technologies.

Responsibility for the operation of the currently deployed observing systems is

summarized below, beginning with the most mature efforts:

Energy Supply, Consumption and End-Use Technologies Measurement and

monitoring systems provide the capability to evaluate the efficacy of efforts

to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through the use of: (1) low-emission

fossil-based power systems; (2) energy supply technologies that are reportedly

greenhouse gas-neutral, such as biomass energy systems, geothermal, and

other renewable energy technologies; and (3) end-use technologies for greater

efficiencies. Observations needed to successfully fulfill these needs are:

climate measurements, physical properties of Earth materials, meteorological

measurements, hydrologic measurements, high-temperature sensors for

emissions, fast-response mass spectrometry, continuous emissions monitors,

and remote-sensing of emissions.

Energy Exploration and Development Both satellite and in situ observations

are used to identify patterns in geology, hydrology, and biology to aid in the

location of favorable Earth habitats for fossil fuel occurrences or potential sites

for renewable energy installations. Observations needs are geologic materials and

structures, spectral reflectance thematic mapping of Earth surface materials,

vegetation composition and patterns, and hydrologic flows and patterns.


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Measurement and Monitoring of Greenhouse Gases This includes

observations that: (1) provide inventories, concentrations and cross-boundary

fluxes of CO2 and other greenhouse compounds, including the size and variability

of the fluxes; (2) provide data for determining the efficacy and durability of

particular mitigation technologies or other actions, and for verifying and

validating results; (3) provide data to evaluate the role of various technologies

and strategies for mitigation by quantifying anthropogenic changes in sources

and sinks of greenhouse gases; (4) provide data to identify opportunities

and guide research investments in carbon markets; and (5) provide data to

assess relationships among changes in greenhouse gas emissions, fluxes and

inventories due to changes in surrounding environments. Observations required

are atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and co-emitted species, atmospheric CO2

isotopic composition, eddy covariance measurements of CO2 fluxes between land

surface and atmosphere, forest biomass inventories, fossil fuels consumption

records, remote-sensing, static and dynamic chambers. Observations besides

CO2 are atmospheric isotopic composition, eddy covariance measurements of

fluxes between surface and atmosphere, forest biomass inventories, fossil fuels

consumption records, and activity data (for example, cattle number and type,

fertilizer mass use, landfill inputs, population for waste disposal).

Measurement and Monitoring of Carbon Storage and Sequestration Methods

used to measure and monitor terrestrial sequestration of carbon address

both the capture and retention of carbon in components of ecosystems. The

measurements are used to evaluate net sequestration, greenhouse gas

emissions that might occur from management practices and other environmental

factors. Observations required are the soil carbon and nitrogen content, soil

moisture content, standing biomass, atmospheric exchange of greenhouse

gases, soil erosion, vegetation characterization, and soil survey.

Active Geothermal Energy Systems Measurements are used to identify

solid Earth formation and rock constituents likely associated with geothermal

power sources. Observations needed are the land surface/land cover, soil

characterization, soil moisture, topography, strain monitoring, high resolution

measurements of gravity and electric fields, physical properties of Earth

materials, thermal emissions, water chemistry, and water discharges.


136

Renewable Energy Optimization Systems Renewable energy technologies

include solar, wind and hydrological power. Estimating resources requires

climatological information such as the duration of sunshine and solar elevation

of an area, the cloudiness, the wind fields and the precipitation. Hydrological

power also requires information about the water shed basin that drains into the

river which is subsequently dammed for power production. Observations required

in this area are meteorological measurements, cloud cover, solar radiation,

precipitation, and hydrologic measurements.


Several areas identified for consideration in future portfolio planning for energy

supply and consumption that deserve new or increased emphasis. These

include: Improvements in performance, longevity, autonomy, spatial resolution

of measurements, and data transmission of CEMs, along with the ability to

measure multiple gases over broad geographic areas. More thorough process

knowledge and life-cycle analysis are needed. Tower-mounted sensors, aircraft

and satellite-based sensors for direct measurement of CO2 and other gases

or indicators, tracers, and isotopic ratios would be beneficial. There is a need

for low cost, multiple wireless micro-sensor networks to monitor migration,

uptake, and distribution patterns of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in soil,

forests, vehicles, and facilities. Data protocols and analytical methods for

producing and archiving specific types of data to enable interoperability and

long-term maintenance of data records, data production models, and emission

coefficients that are used in estimating emissions require further development.

Direct measurements are needed to replace proxies and estimates when direct

measurements are more cost-effective in optimizing emissions and in better

understanding the processes behind the formation of greenhouse gases.


137

Improvements are needed in the measurement and monitoring of Greenhouse

Gases to include: techniques for measuring soil respiration and nocturnal fluxes,

observations of land management, land cover and change, biomass burning,

and deforestation. Measurements of greenhouse gas fluxes, observations of

in-situ CH4 oxidation, and process level models of N2O production and indirect

N2O emissions are required on a global basis to fully understand impacts

of land use/land cover and change. Additional research is also needed to

effectively interpret observations. Development and testing of process-level

models, linking between measurement and remotely-sensed observations, will

all need to have global observations for validity.

Research topics identified for consideration in future research and development

portfolio planning are categorized as follows: national implementation of a

hierarchical system to quantify stocks, emissions, and sinks of CO2 from the plot

scale to the national scale; development of imaging and volume measurement

sensors for land use/cover and biomass estimates; development of low-cost,

practical methods to measure net carbon gain by ecosystems, and to conduct

life cycle analysis of wood products; isotope markers to determine the source

and movement of greenhouse gases in geological, terrestrial, and oceanic

systems; and new measurement technologies that support novel sequestration

concepts, such as enhanced mechanisms for CO2 capture from free air,

new sequestration products resulting from genome sequencing studies, and

modification of natural biogeochemical processes.


Partnership for Solar Energy Resource Assessment DOE and NASA have an

established partnership to assess and improve solar resource mapping. Plans



138

are being made for a task to be performed under the International Energy

Agency involving DOE, NASA and 7 foreign nations (Germany, France, Spain,

Italy, Portugal, Canada, and Japan). The task is planned to assess existing

solar resource maps and to establish a criterion for the assessment of future

predictions of solar resource on several different time scales. For predictions,

NASA and NOAA will collaborate.

Partnership with Utility Companies Utility companies need to be able to

predict demand loads with better accuracy. These demand load predictions are

crucially dependent upon forecasts of weather and other parameters. Improved

weather parameters will help to improve load forecasts and better anticipate

peak demands. A partnership between NASA, NOAA and Electric Power

Research Institute (EPRI) was initiated to accomplish such a task. NASA/NOAA

will collaborate to provide recent past and forecast data in formats and with

parameters important to the load forecasting problems.

Global R&D Satellites such as NASA’s Earth Observation System research

satellites and NOAA’s operational weather and climate satellites, as well as

NOAA’s distributed ground network, which includes the Mauna Loa Observatory,

are currently operational and support data gathering relevant to CCSP and

CCTP. At present, Landsat 7 and Landsat 5 continue to collect spectral

reflectance data for land cover and land change observations.

Continental R&D Ongoing research involves estimating net CO2 emissions for the

North American continent using different approaches: inversion analysis based

on CO2 monitoring equipment as currently arrayed, remote-sensing coupled with

ecosystem modeling, and compilation of land inventory information. European

researchers have embarked on a similar track by combining meteorological

transport models with time-dependent emission inventories provided by member

states of the European Union.

Regional R&D Advanced technologies, such as satellites, are monitoring and/

or verifying countries’ anthropogenic and natural emissions. NOAA is building

an atmospheric carbon monitoring system under the CCSP using small aircraft


139

and tall communications towers that will be capable of determining emissions

and uptake on a 1000 km scale.

Local (micro or individual) R&D A number of techniques are currently

used to directly or indirectly estimate emissions from individual sites and/or

source sectors, such as mass balance techniques, eddy covariance methods

(for example, at the AmeriFlux sites, where source identification is being

done using isotope signatures), application of emissions factors derived from

experimentation, forestry survey methods, and continuous emissions monitors

in the utility sector.

In the long term, the envisioned approach is to evaluate data needs and

pursue the development of an integrated overarching system architecture that

focuses on the most critical data needs. Common databases would provide

measurements for models that could determine sources and estimate additions

to and removals from various greenhouse gas inventories, forecast the long-

term fates of various greenhouse gases, and integrate results into relevant

decision support tools and global-scale monitoring systems. This approach

would include protocols for calibrated and interoperable (easily exchanged) data

products, emissions accounting methods development, and coordination with

basic science research in collaboration with CCSP. Tools would be validated

by experimentation to benchmark protocols (to quantify the improvements

that the tools provide), so that they would be recognized and accepted by the

community-of-practice for emissions-related processes. For a more in-depth

look at the state of Earth observations in the Monitoring and Managing Energy

Resources area, as well as for a list of references, please see the Monitoring

and Managing Energy Resources Reference Document on the IWGEO website

at http://iwgeo.ssc.nasa.gov.



140

Summary

The goal of this appendix was to provide an Executive Summary of the

associated technical reference documents for the nine societal benefit areas. It

is not intended to be an exhaustive reference, but a link between the vision of

the Strategic Plan and the state of observations in those areas. The technical

reference documents are living documents, which will be updated on a regular

basis with inputs from the Federal scientific community, as well as through

public workshops and comment. It is hoped that the interested reader will go

to the website and provide comments on these longer documents in addition to

commenting on the Strategic Plan.

Additional technical documents on Architecture, Integration and Data

Management are being developed by the Federal agencies and will be available

for review in the near future.


142

List Of Acronyms

ADEOS Advanced Earth Observation Satellite

ALOS Advanced Land Observing Satellite

AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle

AWRP Aviation Weather Research Program

CCSP Climate Change Science Program

CCTP Climate Change Technology Program

CEMs Continuous Emissions Monitors

CENR Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

CLIVAR Climate Variability and Predictability Programme

CrIS Current Research Information System

DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite Program

DOD Department of Defense

DSS Decision Support System

EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute

FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency

FGDC Federal Geographic Data Committee

FHWA Federal Highway Administration

GCOS Global Climate Observing System

GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems

GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamic Laboratory

GMAO Global Modeling and Assimilation Office

GOOS Global Ocean Observing System

GOS Global Observing System

HHS Health and Human Services

IMBER Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research Project

IOOS Integrated Ocean Observing System

IRIS Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology

ITWS Integrated Terminal Weather System

IWGEO Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

JGOFS Joint Global Ocean Flux Study

LDAS Land Data Assimilation Systems

LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging

LMR Living Marine Resources

MDCRS Meteorological Data Collection and Reporting System

MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer

MRLC Multi-Resolution Land Characteristics Consortium

MSU Microwave Sounder Unit

NAWQA National Water Quality Assessment Program

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NBII National Biological Information Infrastructure

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research


143

NCEP National Centers for Environmental Prediction

NCOD National Contaminant Occurrence Database

NDBC National Data Buoy Center

NEOS NOAA’s Ecosystem Observation System

NESDIS NOAA/National Environmental Satellite, Data & Information Service

NHD National Hydrography Dataset

NIAID National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases

NIEHS National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

NIH National Institutes of Health

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOHRSC National Operational Hydrologic Remote-sensing Center

NPOESS National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System

NSIP NWS Service Improvement Program

NSIPP NASA Seasonal-to-Interannual Prediction Project

NWLON National Water Level Observation Network

NWP Numerical Weather Prediction

NWS NOAA/National Weather Service

OFCM Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology

PALSAR Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar

PDTs Product Development Teams

POES Polar Operational Environmental Satellite

QuickSCAT NASA’s Quick Scatterometer

SDWIS Safe Drinking Water Information System

SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field of view Sensor

SM/STPP Soil Moisture/Soil Temperature Pilot Project

SNOTEL Snowpack Telemetry

SOLAS Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study

STIP NWS Science and Technology Infusion Plan

STORET EPA’s Storage and Retrieval Database

THORPEX The Hemispheric Observing System Research and Predictability Experiment

TOPEX Ocean Topography Experiment

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

UAVs Uninhabited Aerial Vehicles

USACE U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USAF United States Air Force

USAID/OFDA United States Agency for International Development/Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance

USGS United States Geological Survey

USWRP U.S. Weather Research Program

VIRS Visible and Infrared Scanner

WMO World Meteorological Organization

WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment

WRF Weather Research and Forecasting Model


145145

APPENDIX 3: END NOTES

1 United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Population Prospects 1950-2050 (The 1996 Revision), on diskette (U.N., New York, 1996).

2 Bookman, Charles A., Culliton, Thomas J., and Warren, Maureen A., Trends in U.S. Coastal Regions, 1970-1998: addendum to the proceedings, Trends and Future Challenges for U.S. National ocean and Coastal Policy, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA Oceans and Coasts, Special Projects Office, Silver Spring, MD, 1999. Also available online at http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/websites/retiredsites/natdia_pdf/trends_addendum.pdf.

3 “The Ozone Report—Measuring Progress Through 2003,” EPA454/K-04-001, April, 2004.

4 WMO Looks Forward: Fifth WMO Long-term Plan 2000-2009. Summary for decision makers, World Meteorological Organization, WMO–No. 909, ISBN 92-63-10909-5, 2000.

5 Dutton, John A., Opportunities and Priorities in a New Era for Weather and Climate Services, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, September 2002, Volume 83, No. 9, pp 1303-1311.

6 Weiher, Rodney, ed. Improving El Nino Forecasting: The Potential Economic Benefits, NOAA, U.S. Department of Commerce, 1997, p. 29, p. 43, for U.S. agriculture and fisheries, respectively.

7 See Appendix 2, for summaries of technical reports on societal benefits areas.

8 Ibid.

9 Ibid.

http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/websites/retiredsites/natdia_pdf/trends_addendum.pdf

http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/websites/retiredsites/natdia_pdf/trends_addendum.pdf


146

10 van der Vink, G., et al., “Why the United States is Becoming More Vulnerable to Natural Disasters,” Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Vol. 79, No. 44, November 3, 1998, pp. 533, 537.

11 See Appendix 2.

12 Ibid.

13 Cicerone, Ralph J., et al., Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions, National Research Council, 2001, National Academy Press, pp 23, 24.

14 See Appendix 2.

15 Ibid.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid.

18 Ibid.

19 Jones, Del, USA Today, “Forecast: 1 degree is worth $1B in power savings,” June 19, 2001.

20 See the GLOBE website at http://www.globe.gov/fsl/welcome.html.

21 The Clinger-Cohen Act of 1996 assigned Agency Chief Information Officers (CIO) with the responsibility to develop information technology architectures (ITAs). The Office of Management and Budget (OMB) M-97-02, Funding Information Systems Investments, October 1996, requires that Agency investments in major information systems be consistent with Federal, Agency, and Bureau ITAs. The CIO Council began developing the Federal Enterprise Architecture Framework in April 1998 to promote shared development for common Federal processes, interoperability, and sharing of information among the Agencies of the Federal Government and other Governmental entities.

22 Statistical Abstract of the United States 2000, p. 38, U.S. Census Bureau

23 See for instance, the Data Management and Communications System in the Integrated Ocean Observing System at http://dmac.ocean.us/dacsc/imp_plan.jsp and the National Model Access Data System.

24 Tools like Metis and Open Geospatial Data System standards are used to tie together existing observation system architecture and related metadata.

http://www.globe.gov/fsl/welcome.html

http://dmac.ocean.us/dacsc/imp_plan.jsp


147

25 “Reducing Disaster Vulnerability Through Science and Technology,” NSTC/CENR/SDR, An Interim Report of the Subcommittee on Disaster Reduction, July 2003.

26 3rd Assessment Report (2001) by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

27 Robinson, Robert A., Alaska Native Villages: Villages Affected by Flooding and Erosion have Difficulty Qualifying for Federal Assistance, GAO Testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on Appropriations, GAO-04-895T, June 29, 2004.

28 See: Climate of 2002—May Southwest Region Drought, National Climatic Data Center, June 17, 2002, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/2002/may/sw0205.html

29 Earth System Modeling Framework, found at http://www.esmf.ucar.edu/

30 “The Ozone Report—Measuring Progress Through 2003,” EPA454/K-04-001, April, 2004.

http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/research/2002/may/sw0205.html

http://www.esmf.ucar.edu/


148148

Photo Credits

ii Snowmelt runoff fills a reservoir in the Rocky Mountains near Dillon, Colorado. Photo by Scott Bauer, USDA.

viii A healthy wheat field outside Clay Center, Nebraska. Photo by Stephen Ausmus, USDA.

8 Secretary of State Colin Powell addresses participants at Earth Observation Summit I. Also seated at the dais from L-R are NOAA Administrator Conrad Lautenbacher, Energy Secretary Spencer Abraham, Commerce Secretary Don Evans, White House Science Advisor John Marburger, Council on Environmental Quality Chairman James Connaughton, Republic of the Congo Minister Henri Djombo, and Under Secretary of State Paula Dobriansky. Photo provided by NASA.

12 NOAA-12 multi-channel image of Hurricane Bonnie, August 1998. Satellite designed and built by NASA and is NOAA operated.

30 Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) buoy servicing aboard NOAA ship, HI`IALAKAI. Photo by Stephen Barry, NOAA.

34 SERVIR training workshop at Marshall Space Flight Center. SERVIR is a Regional Monitoring and Visualization System for Mesoamerica that intensively utilizes satellite imagery and other data sources for environmental management and disaster support. NASA Photo by Emmett Given.

44 NOAA’s National Severe Storm Lab’s first research Doppler Weather Radar. Photo provided by NOAA Photo Library, NOAA Central Library; OAR/ERL/National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL).

56 Technician Jeff Nichols collects a water sample from the Walnut Creek watershed in Ames, Iowa. Photo by Keith Weller, USDA.

58 Atmospheric Radiation Measurement’s facility at Barrow, AK, is providing data about cloud and radiative processes at high latitudes. These data are being used to refine models and parameterizations as they relate to the Arctic. Photo provided by DOE’s Photo provided by DOE’s Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program..

68 Aerographer’s mate launching weather balloon. Official U.S. Navy photo provided by DOD.

141 Analysis Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Mobile Facility site to be deployed at Niamey, Niger in 2006 (http://www.arm.gov/acrf). Photo provided by DOE’s Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program.

144 Waves coming in at Port Elliot, Encounter Bay, South Australia. Photo provided by Chris Potter.

http://www.arm.gov/acrf


149

Co-Chairs

Executive Secretary

National Science and Technology Council Committee on Environment & Natural Resources

Members

Kathie L. Olsen Associate Director for Science Office of Science and Technology Policy Executive Office of the President

Paul Gilman* Assistant Administrator, Office of Research and Development Environmental Protection Agency

Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr. Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans & Atmosphere Administrator, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Department of Commerce

Donald Prosnitz Senior Advisor to the Attorney General Department of Justice

Kathryn Jackson Executive Vice President Tennessee Valley Authority

Margaret Leinen Assistant Director, Geosciences National Science Foundation

Ken Olden Director, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Department of Health and Human Services

John Turner Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs Department of State

Marcus Peacock Director for Natural Resource Programs Office of Management and Budget

Samuel Williamson Federal Coordinator for Meteorology National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

James Connaughton Chairman, Council on Environmental Quality Executive Office of the President

Joseph Jen Under Secretary for Research, Education & Economics US Department of Agriculture

Ghassem Asrar Science Deputy Associate Administrator National Aeronautics and Space Administration

James Decker Principal Deputy Director Office of Science Department of Energy

Linda Lawson Transportation Policy Development Office of the Assistant Secretary for Transportation Policy Department of Transportation

Robert Foster Director, Bio Systems Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Science & Technology Department of Defense

Charles “Chip” Groat Director, US Geological Survey Department of Interior

Len Hirsch Senior Policy Advisor Smithsonian Institution

Carla Sullivan Senior Policy Advisor National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

*retired from EPA in November, 2004

The National Science and Technology Council

The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), a cabinet level council, is the principal means for the President to

coordinate science, and technology policies across the Federal Government. NSTC acts to coordinate the diverse parts of the

Federal research and development enterprise.

An important objective of the NSTC is the establishment of clear national goals for Federal science and technology investments

in areas ranging from information technologies and health research to improving transportation systems and strengthening

fundamental research. This council prepares research and development strategies that are coordinated across Federal

agencies to form an investment package that is aimed at accomplishing multiple national goals.

To obtain additional information regarding the NSTC, contact the NSTC Executive Secretariat at (202) 456-6101

The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

The Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) is one of four committees under the NSTC. It is charged with

improving coordination among federal agencies involved in environmental and natural resources research and development,

establishing a strong link between science and policy, and developing a federal environment and natural resources research

and development strategy that responds to national and international issues.

To obtain additional information regarding the CENR, contact the CENR Executive Secretariat at (202) 482-5921.

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

The Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations was chartered by the CENR for the purpose of developing the Strategic

Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth Observation System, and to provide U.S. contributions to the Global Earth Observation

System of Systems (GEOSS). The Interagency Working Group’s charter expired in December, 2004, and the working group has

been replaced with a standing subcommittee under CENR, the United States Group on Earth Observations (US GEO).

To obtain additional information regarding the US GEO, contact the US GEO Executive Secretariat at (202) 482-5921.

Proper citation of this document is as follows:

CENR/IWGEO. 2005. Strategic Plan for the U.S. Integrated Earth

Observation System, National Science and Technology Council Committee

on Environment and Natural Resources, Washington, DC.

For additional copies or information, please contact:

CENR Executive Secretariat

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

1401 Constitution Ave., N.W.

HCHB Room 5810

Washington, DC 20230

Telephone: 202-482-5921

Fax: 202-408-9674

E-mail: [email protected]

This report is also available via the World Wide Web at

http://www.ostp.gov


mailto:[email protected]?subject=Comments%20From%20the%20U.S.%20Strategic%20Plan:%20

http://www.ostp.gov


prepared by the Interagency Working Group on Earth Observations

of the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources

Strategic Plan For The U.S. Integrated Earth Observation SystemApril, 2005

