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1. INTRODUCTION
The electronic industry is the world’s largest and fastest growing manufacturing
industry in the world. The increasing “market penetration” in developing countries,
“replacement market” in developed countries and “high obsolescence rate” of electrical
and electronic goods make electrical and electronic waste (e-waste) one of the fastest
growing waste streams. E-waste is valuable source for secondary raw material but
harmful if treated and discarded improperly as it contains many toxic components such as
lead, cadmium, mercury, polychlorinated biphenlys etc. (Bandyopadhyay, 2010).
The quantity of e-waste generated in developed countries equals 1% of total solid
waste on an average and is expected to grow to 2% by 2010 (UNEP Manual, 2007).In
United States alone, 1,30,000 computers and 3,00,000 cell phones are trashed each day
(Anderson, 2010).The developed countries use most of the world’s electronic products
and generate most of the E-waste (Basel Action Network, 2002). Rather than treat e-
waste in an environmentally friendly manner, the developed countries are finding an easy
way out of the problem by exporting these wastes to developing economies especially,
South Asian countries (Basel Action Network, 2002).
The import of e-waste to the developing countries is in violation of the ban imposed
by Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal, as e-waste come under the definition of hazardous waste (Basel
Convention, 1992).Following this, our country, a party to the convention, banned the
import of hazardous waste including e-waste into the country. But a major source of e-
waste in India is illegal imports (Sathish, 2006).
The major portion of the e-waste generated domestically as well as illegally imported
are recycled in crude manner leading to pollution of the environment. Lack of legislation
in our country at present is aiding this hazardous form of recycling. Therefore there is
urgent need to frame and implement rules for regulating this waste and to find
environmentally sound, economically viable methods for recycling and disposing of this
1
necessary evil. The necessity of environmentally sound management of e-waste is
brought out with the help of a case study of uncontrolled dumping of e-waste.
2. E-WASTE
E-waste is the popular name for discarded electrical and electronic equipment with all
of their peripherals at the end of their life. E-waste comprises of wastes generated from
used electronic devices and household appliances which are not fit for their original
intended use and are destined for recovery, recycling or disposal. Such wastes
encompasses wide range of electrical and electronic devices such as computers, hand
held cellular phones, personal stereos, including large household appliances such as
refrigerators, air conditioners etc.
2.1 MAJOR SOURCES
Individuals and Small Businesses: The useful span of a computer has come down to
about two years due to improved versions being launched about every 18 months. Often,
new software is incompatible or insufficient with older hardware so that customers are
forced to buy new computers.
Large corporations, Institutions and Government: Large users upgrade employee
computers regularly.
Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs):OEMs generate e-waste when units
coming off the production line do not meet quality standards, and must be disposed off.
Some of the computer manufacturers contract with recycling companies to handle their
electronic waste, which often is exported.
Besides computers, other major e waste source is the cellular phone.
2.2 INDIAN SCENARIO
2
The electronics industry has emerged as the fastest growing segment of Indian
industry both in terms of production and exports. The share of software services in
electronics and IT sector has gone up from 38.7 per cent in 1998-99 to 61.8percent in
2003-04. A review of the industry statistics show that in 1990-91,hardware accounted for
nearly 50% of total IT revenues while software's share was 22%. The scenario changed
by 1994-95, with hardware share falling to 38%and software share rising to 41%. This
shift in the IT industry began with liberalization and the opening up of Indian markets
together with which there was a change in India’s import policies vis-à-vis hardware
leading to substitution of domestically produced hardware by imports.
By the end of financial year 2005-06, India had an installed base of 4.64 million
desktops, about 431thousand notebooks and 89 thousand servers. According to the
estimates made by the Manufacturers Association of Information Technology (MAIT),
the Indian PC industry is growing at a 25% compounded annual growth rate. The e-waste
inventory based on this obsolescence rate and installed base in India for the year 2005 has
been estimated to be 146180.00 tonne. This is expected to exceed 8,00,000tonne by 2012.
There is a lack of authentic and comprehensive data on e-waste availability for domestic
generation of e-waste and the various State Pollution Control Boards have initiated the
exercise to collect data on e-waste generation.
Sixty-five cities in India generate more than 60% of the total e-waste generated in
India. Ten states generate 70% of the total e-waste generated in India. Maharashtra ranks
first followed by Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab in the list of e-waste generating states in
India.
In our country, currently some units have registered with the Ministry of Environment
and Forests as possessing environmentally sound management facilities for recycling of
e-waste. The list of units registered with Ministry of Environment and Forests/Central
Pollution Control Board as recyclers/reprocessors having environmentally sound
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management facilities is given below in table 2.1(Ministry of Environment and Forests,
2010):
Table 2.1List of Recyclers/Reprocessors having registration of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India
Sl. No.
Name of the Unit Waste permitted and Quantity allowed
Registration Valid up to
ANDHRA PRADESH
1 Ramky E-waste Recycling Facility (Ramky Engineers Ltd.) Maheswaram (M) R.R.Distt
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling &Transboundary Movement) (HW(M,H&TM))Rule,2008 -10000 MTA
28/07/2011
2 Earth Sense Recycle Pvt. Ltd. Rangareddy District
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H&TM) Rule,2008- 1800 MTA
30/08/2015
HARYANA
1 Earth Sense Recycle Pvt. Ltd. Gurgaon
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H&TM) Rule,2008 - 1200 MTA
29/08/2015
KARNATAKA
1 Ash Recyclers, Unit-II Bangalore
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 - 120 MTA
01/12/2010
2 New Port Computer Services (India) Private Limited,Bangalore
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 500MTA
31/01/2011
3 EWaRDD& Co.,Bangalore
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 600MTA
04/03/2011
4 E-R3 Solutions Pvt. Ltd.,Bangalore
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – (only printer cartridge) – 1,20,000 units
17/05/2011
MAHARASHTRA
4
1 Eco Recycling Limited,Thane
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 7200MTA
25/04/2011
2 Earth Sense Recycle Pvt. Ltd.,Thane
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 360MTA
27/10/2010
3 Hi Tech Recycling India (P) Ltd.,Pune
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 500MTA
29/04/2011
RAJASTHAN
1 Green Eco Management Pvt. Ltd., Alwar
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 450MTA
04/03/2011
TAMILNADU
1 Trishyiraya Recycling India Pvt. Ltd., Chennai
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 740MTA
01/12/2010
2 TESAMM Private Limited,Kancheepuram
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 –30,000MTA
08/12/2010
3 Global E-waste Management and Services, Kancheepuram
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 387 MTA
02/05/2011
UTTAR PRADESH
1 TIC Group India Pvt. Ltd., Noida
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 1000 MTA
01/12/2010
UTTARKHAND
1 Attero Recycling Private Limited,Haridwar
e-Waste as per the Sl.No.18 of Schedule IV of HW(M,H& TM) Rule,2008 – 12,000 MTA
15/07/2011
3. CLASSIFICATION OF E-WASTE
5
3.1COMPONENTSOF E-WASTE
E-waste has been categorized into three main categories, viz. large household
appliances, IT and Telecom and consumer equipment. Refrigerator and washing machine
represent large household appliances, personal computer monitor and laptop represent IT
and Telecom, while television represents consumer equipment. Each of these e-waste
items has been classified with respect to twenty six common components, which could be
found in them. These components form the “building blocks” of each item and therefore
they are readily “identifiable” and “removable”. These components are metal,
motor/compressor, cooling, plastic, insulation, glass, (Liquid Crystal Display) LCD,
rubber, wiring/ electrical, concrete, transformer, magnetron, textile, circuit board,
fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamp, heating element, thermostat, BFR-containing
plastic, batteries, fluorocarbons (CFC/HCFC/HFC/HC), external electric cables,
refractory ceramic fibers, radioactive substances and electrolyte capacitors. The kinds of
components, which are found in refrigerator, washing machine, personal computers (PC)
and televisions, are described in table 3.1.
From table 3.1 it can be seen that the range of different items seen in e-waste is
diverse. However, e-waste from these items can be dismantled into relatively smaller
number of common components for further treatments.
6
Table 3.1 Components of E-waste
Met
al
Mot
or/ c
ompr
esso
r
Coo
ling
Pla
stic
Insu
lati
on
Gla
ss
CR
T
LC
D
Rub
ber
Wir
ing/
elec
tric
al
Con
cret
e
Tra
nsfo
rmer
Mag
netr
on
Tex
tile
Cir
cuit
boa
rd
Flu
ores
cent
lam
p
Inca
ndes
cent
lam
p
Hea
ting
ele
men
t
The
rmos
tat
BF
R c
onta
inin
g pl
asti
c
Bat
teri
es
CF
C,H
CF
C,H
FC
,HC
Ele
ctri
c ca
bles
Ref
ract
ory
cera
mic
fib
res
Rad
ioac
tive
sub
stan
ces
Ele
ctro
lyte
cap
acit
ors
Large household appliancesRefrigerator √ √ √ √ √ √ - - √ √ - - - - - - √ - √ √ - √ √ - - -
WashingMachine
√ √ - √ - √ - - √ √ √ - - - √ - - √ √ - - - √ - - º
IT & TelecomPersonalComputer(base & keyboard)
√ √ - √ - - - - - √ - √ - - √ - - - - - √ - √ - - -
PersonalComputer(monitor)
- - - √ - - √ √ - - - - - - √ - - - - - - - √ - - -
Laptop - √ - √ - - - √ √ - - √ √ - - - √ √ - √ - √ - - -
Consumer equipment Television √ - - √ - - √ - - √ - √ - - √ - - - - √ - - √ - - -
7
3.2 COMPOSITION OF E-WASTE
Composition of e-waste is very diverse and differs in products across different
categories. It contains more than 1000 different substances, which fall under “hazardous”
and “non-hazardous” categories. Broadly, it consists of ferrous and non-ferrous metals,
plastics, glass, wood & plywood, printed circuit boards, concrete and ceramics, rubber
and other items. Iron and steel constitutes about50% of the e-waste followed by plastics
(21%), non ferrous metals (13%) and other constituents. Non-ferrous metals consist of
metals like copper, aluminium and precious metals e.g. silver, gold, platinum, palladium
etc. The presence of elements like lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, selenium and
hexavalent chromium and flame retardants beyond threshold quantities in e-waste
classifies them as hazardous waste. The possible constituents of concern found in the
three main categories described in 3.1 are given in table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Possible Hazardous Substances in Components of E-waste
8
Component Possible hazardous content
MetalMotor/compressorCooling Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)Plastic Phthalate plasticizer, brominated flame retardants (BFR)Insulation Insulation ODS in foam, asbestos, refractory ceramic
fiberGlassCathode Ray Tube Lead, Antimony, Mercury, PhosphorLiquid Crystal Display MercuryRubber Phthalate plasticizer, BFRWiring / electrical Phthalate plasticizer, BFR, LeadConcreteTransformerCircuit Board Lead, Beryllium, Antimony, BFRFluorescent lamp Mercury, Phosphorous, Flame retardantsIncandescent lampHeating elementThermostat MercuryBFR-containing plastic BFRsBatteries Lead, Lithium, Cadmium, MercuryCFC,HCFC,HFC,HC ODSExternal electric cables BFRs, plasticizersElectrolyte capacitors Glycol, other unknown substances
The substances within the above mentioned components, which cause most concern
are the heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium(VI), halogenated
substances (e.g. CFCs), polychlorinated biphenyls, plastics and circuit boards that contain
brominated flame retardants (BFRs). BFR can give rise to dioxins and furans during
incineration. Other materials and substances that can be present are arsenic, asbestos,
nickel and copper. These substances may act as catalysts to increase the formation of
dioxins during incineration.
3.3 HEALTH EFFECTS OF SOME COMMON CONSTITUENTS IN E-WASTE
The health effects of heavy metals and certain compounds found commonly in
components of e-waste are described below:
3.3.1. Lead
Lead is used in glass panels and gaskets in computer monitors and in solder in printed
circuit boards and other components.
Lead causes damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, blood systems,
kidney and reproductive system in humans. It also affects the endocrine system, and
impedes brain development among children. Lead tends to accumulate in the
environment and has high acute and chronic effects on plants, animals and micro
organisms (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).
3.3.2. Cadmium
Cadmium occurs in surface mounted device (SMD) chip resistors, infra-red detectors,
and semiconductor chips. Some older cathode ray tubes contain cadmium.
Toxic cadmium compounds accumulate in the human body, especially the liver,
kidneys pancreas, thyroid (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003, Basel Action Network, 2002).
3.3.3. Mercury
9
It is estimated that 22 % of the yearly world consumption of mercury is used in
electrical and electronic equipment. Mercury is used in thermostats, sensors, relays,
switches, medical equipment, lamps, mobile phones and in batteries. Mercury, used in
flat panel displays, will likely increase as their use replaces cathode ray tubes.
Mercury can cause damage to central nervous system as well as the foetus. The
developing foetus is highly vulnerable to mercury exposure (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).
When inorganic mercury spreads out in the water, it is transformed to methylated
mercury which bio-accumulates in living organisms and concentrates through the food
chain, particularly via fish (Basel Action Network, 2002).
3.3.4. Hexavalent Chromium/Chromium VI
Chromium VI is used as corrosion protector of untreated and galvanized steel plates
and as a decorative or hardener for steel housings.
Chromium VI can cause damage to DNA and is extremely toxic in the environment.
Long term effects are skin sensitization and kidney damage(Metcalf & Eddy, 2003).
3.4.5. Plastics (including PVC)
The largest volume of plastics (26%) used in electronics has been poly vinyl chloride
(PVC). PVC elements are found in cabling and computer housings. Many computer
moldings are now made with the somewhat more benign acrylonitrile butadiene (ABS)
plastic. Dioxins are released when PVC is burned (Basel Action Network, 2002)..
3.4.6 Brominated Flame Retardants (BFRs)
BFRs are used in the plastic housings of electronic equipment and in circuit boards to
prevent flammability. BFRs are persistent in the atmosphere and show bioaccumulation.
Concerns are raised considering their potential to toxicity (Basel Action Network, 2002).
3.4.7. Barium
10
Barium is a soft silvery-white metal that is usedprotect users from radiation.
Studies have shown that short-term exposure to barium causes brain swelling, muscle
weakness, damage to the heart, liver, and spleen(Basel Action Network, 2002).
3.4.8. Beryllium
Beryllium is commonly found on motherboards and finger clips.
Exposure to beryllium can cause lung cancer. Beryllium also causes a skin disease that is
characterised by poor wound healing and wartlike bumps. Studies have shown that
people can develop beryllium disease many years following the last exposure. It is used
as a copper-beryllium alloy to strengthen connectors.
Barium is a soft silvery-white metal that is used to protect users from radiation.
3.4.9. Phosphor and additives
Phosphor is an inorganic chemical compound that is applied as a coat on the interior of
the CRT faceplate. Phosphor affects the display resolution and luminance of the images
that is seen in the monitor.
The phosphor coating on cathode ray tubes contains heavy metals, such as cadmium, and
other rare earth metals, for example, zinc, vanadium as additives. These metals and their
compounds are very toxic. This is a serious hazard posed for those who dismantle CRTs
by hand.
3.4. NEED FOR GUIDELINES FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT
11
The saying waste is misplaced wealth is true in the case of e-waste. The recyclability
of e-waste and the precious metals that can be extracted from the waste make recycling
a lucrative business. But recycling using environmentally sound means costly business
and so majority of the e-waste is recycled via the informal sector. Informal recycling
involves minimal use of technology and is carried out in the poorer parts of big cities.
The standard recycling drill involves physically breaking down components often without
any protective gear, burning poly vinyl chloride (PVC) wires to retrieve copper, melting
of lead and mercury laden parts. The extraction of gold and copper requires acid
processing. The plastic parts, which contain brominated flame retardants (BFR) are also
broken into small pieces prior to recycle. All these processes release toxic fumes into
the atmosphere and polluted water into soil and water bodies leading to contamination.
Most of those who work in the recycling sector are the urban poor with low literacy
lacking awareness of the hazards of the toxic e-wastes. Children and women are
routinely involved in the operations. Most of the work is done by bare hands. Waste
components which do not have resale value are openly burnt or disposed off in open
dumps (Kurian, 2007).
Rapid pace of product obsolescence resulting in short life span of computers and
other electronic equipments coupled with exponential increase in consumption of such
products will result in the doubling of waste over next five to six years. The toxicity of
constituents in e-waste, lack of environmentally sound recycling infrastructure and the
large scale current practice of informal recycling highlight the urgent need for guidelines
for environmentally sound management of e-waste.
4. METHODOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTE
4.1. E-WASTE COMPOSITION AND RECYCLE POTENTIAL
12
The composition of e-waste and its recyclable potential is specific for each appliance. In
order to handle this complexity, the parts/materials found in e-waste may be divided broadly
into six categories as follows:
Iron and steel, used for casings and frames
Non-ferrous metals, especially copper used in cables, and aluminum
Glass used for screens, windows
Plastic used as casing, in cables and for circuit boards
Electronic components
Others (rubber, wood, ceramic etc.)
Overview of the composition of the appliances in the three categories mentioned earlier is
given in table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Average Weight and Composition of Selected Appliances (Typical)
Appliances Average weight (kg)
Fe % weight
Non Fe- metal % weight
Glass % weight
Plastic % weight
Electronic components % weight
Others % weight
Refrigerators and freezers
48 .0 64.4 6 .0 1.4 13 .0 0.2 15.0
Personal computer 29.6 20.0 24 15 23.0 17.3 0.7
TV sets 36.2 5.3 5.4 62 22.9 0.9 3.5
The recovery potential (typical values) of items of economic value from refrigerator,
personal computer and television are given in tables 4.2, 4.3, 4.4 respectively.
Table 4.2 Recoverable Quantity of Materials in a Refrigerator
Material Type % (by weight)
13
CFCs 0.20
Oil 0.32
Ferrous Metals 46.61
Non-Ferrous Metals 4.97
Plastics 13.84
Compressors 23.80
Cables/Plugs 0.55
Spent Foam 7.60
Glass 0.81
Mixed Waste 1.30
Total 100.00
Table 4.3 Recoverable Quantity of Materials in a Personal Computer
Elements Content (% of total weight)
Content (Kg)
Recycling efficiency (%)
Recoverable weight of element (kg)
Plastics 23 6.25 20% 1.251
Lead 6 1.71 5% 0.086
Aluminum 14 3.85 80% 3.084
Germanium 0.0016 0.00 0% 0
Gallium 0.0013 0.00 0% 0
Iron 20 5.57 80% 4.455
Tin 1 0.27 70% 0.192
Copper 7 1.88 90% 1.696
Barium 0.0315 0.01 0% 0
Nickel 0.8503 0.23 0% 0
Zinc 2 0.60 60% 0.360
Tanialum 0.0157 0.0046 0% 0
Indium 0.0016 0.00047 60% 0.00026
Vanadium 0.0002 0.00 0% 0
Beryllium 0.0157 0.0046 0% 0
Gold 0.0016 0.00047 99% 0.00043
14
Europium 0.0002 0.00 0% 0
Tritium 0.0157 0.00 0% 0
Ruthenium 0.0016 0.00047 80% 0.00035
Cobalt 0.0157 0.0047 85% 0.00363
Palladium 0.0003 0.00 0077 95% 0.000077
Manganese 0.0315 0.01 0% 0
Silver 0.0189 0.0156 98% 0.00504
Antimony 0.0094 0.00 0% 0
Bismuth 0.0063 0.00 0% 0
Chromium 0.0063 0.00 0% 0
Cadmium 0.0094 0.00 0% 0
Selenium 0.0016 0.00047 70% 0.0003
Niobium 0.0002 0.00045 0% 0
Yttrium 0.0002 0.00 0% 0
Mercury 0.0022 0.00 0% 0
Arsenic 0.0013 0.00 0% 0
Silica 24.8803 6.77 0% 0
Table 4.4 Recoverable Quantity of Materials in a Television
Elements % by weight Recoverable Weight of element (Kg)
Aluminium 1.2 0.4344
Copper 3.4 1.2308
Lead 0.2 0.0724
Zinc 0.3 0.1086
Nickel 0.038 0.0138
Iron 12 4.344
Plastic 26 9.412
Glass 53 19.186
Silver 0.000724
Gold 0.000362
4.2. ASSESSMENT OF HAZARDOUSNESS OF E-WASTE
15
The hazardous nature of e-waste is determined by identifying the e-waste category
item (identification includes the waste items and year of manufacture), identifying the e-
waste composition or its components, identifying possible hazardous content in the e-
waste and identifying whether the e-waste component is hazardous or the entire e-waste
item is hazardous.
4.3.RECYCLING, REUSE AND RECOVERY OPTIONS
The composition of e-waste consists of diverse items like ferrous and non ferrous
metals, glass, plastic, electronic components and other items and it is also revealed that e-
waste consists of hazardous elements. Therefore, the major approach to treat e-waste is to
reduce the concentration of these hazardous chemicals and elements through recycle and
recovery. In the process of recycling or recovery, certain e-waste fractions act as
secondary raw material for recovery of valuable items. The recycle and recovery includes
the following unit operations.
(i) Dismantling
Removal of parts containing dangerous substances (CFCs, Hg switches, PCB); removal
of easily accessible parts containing valuable substances(cable containing copper, steel,
iron, precious metal containing parts, e.g. contacts).
(ii) Segregation of ferrous metal, non-ferrous metal and plastic
This separation is normally done in a shredder process.
(iii) Refurbishment and reuse
Refurbishment and reuse of e-waste has potential for those used electrical and electronic
equipments which can be easily refurbished to put to its original use.
(iv) Recycling/recovery of valuable materials
Ferrous metals in electrical are furnaces, non-ferrous metals in smelting plants, precious
metals in separating works.
16
(v) Treatment/disposal of dangerous materials and waste
Shredder light fraction is disposed of in landfill sites or sometimes incinerated
(expensive), CFCs are treated thermally, PCB is incinerated or disposed of in
underground storages, Hg is often recycled or disposed of in underground landfill sites.
4.4. TREATMENT &DISPOSAL OF E-WASTE
The presence of hazardous elements in e-waste offers the potential of increasing the
intensity of their discharge in environment due to landfilling and incineration. The
potential treatment &disposal options based on the composition are given below:
1) Incineration 2) Landfilling
4.4.1. Landfilling
The literature review reveals that degradation processes in landfills are very
complicated and run over a wide time span. At present it is not possible to quantify
environmental impacts from E-waste in landfills for the following reasons:
Landfills contain mixtures of various waste streams
Emission of pollutants from landfills can be delayed for many years
One of the studies on landfills reports that the environmental risks from landfilling of e-
waste cannot be neglected because the conditions in a landfill site are different from a
native soil, particularly concerning the leaching behavior of metals. In addition it is
known that cadmium and mercury are emitted in diffuse form or via the landfill gas
combustion plant. Although the risks cannot be quantified and traced back to e-waste,
landfilling does not appear to be an environmentally sound treatment method for
substances, which are volatile and not biologically degradable (Cd, Hg, CFC), persistent
(PCB) or with unknown behaviour in a landfill site (brominated flame retardants). As a
consequence o fthe complex material mixture in e-waste, it is not possible to exclude
environmental (long-term) risks even in secured landfilling.
4.4.2. Incineration
17
Advantage of incineration of e-waste is the reduction of waste volume and the
utilization of the energy content of combustible materials. Some plants remove iron from
the slag for recycling. By incineration some environmentally hazardous organic
substances are converted into less hazardous compounds. Disadvantage of incineration
are the emission to air of substances escaping fluegas cleaning and the large amount of
residues from gas cleaning and combustion.
There is no available research study or comparable data, which indicates the impact of e-
waste emissions into the overall performance of municipal waste incineration plants.
Waste incineration plants contribute significantly to the annual emissions of cadmium
and mercury. In addition, heavy metals not emitted into the atmosphere are transferred to
slag and exhaust gas residues and can reenter the environment on disposal. Therefore, e-
waste incineration will increase these emissions, if no reduction measures like removal of
heavy metals from are taken.
5. ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND E-WASTE TREATMENT
TECHNOLOGIES
Environmentally sound E-waste treatment technologies (EST) are used at three levels
as described below:
1. 1stlevel treatment
2. 2ndlevel treatment
3. 3rdlevel treatment
5.1. ANALYSIS
18
All the three levels of e-waste treatment are based on material flow. The material
flows from 1stlevel to 3rd level treatment. Each level treatment consists of unit operations,
where e-waste is treated and output of 1stlevel treatment serves as input to 2ndlevel
treatment. After the third level treatment, the residues are disposed of either in Treatment,
Storage, Disposal Facility (TSDF) or incinerated. The efficiency of operations at first and
second level determines the quantity of residues going to TSDF or incineration. The
simplified version of all the three treatments is shown in figure 5.1.EST at each level of
treatment is described in terms of input, unit operations, output and emissions.
Figure 5.1: Simplified Version of EST for E-waste
5.2. EST FOR 1ST LEVEL TREATMENT
5.2.1 Input: e-waste items like TV, refrigerator and Personal Computers (PC)
19
1st LEVEL TREATMENT
2nd LEVEL TREATMENT
3rd LEVEL TREATMENT
Input e-waste
Disposal
Disposal
Output i.e. recovered materials
5.2.2 Unit Operations:
There are three units operations at first level of e-waste treatment.
1.Decontamination - The first treatment step is to decontaminate e-waste and render it
nonhazardous. This involves removal of all types of liquids and gases (if any)under
negative pressure, their recovery and storage.
2. Dismantling - Manual/mechanized breaking
3.Segregation - Components are segregated into hazardous and nonhazardous
components of e-waste fractions to be sent for 3rd level treatment.
All the three unit operations are dry processes, which do not require usage of water.
5.2.3. Output:
1. Segregated hazardous wastes like CFC, Hg Switches, batteries and capacitors
2. Decontaminated e-waste consisting of segregated non-hazardous e-waste like plastic,
CRT, circuit board and cables
5.2.4.Emissions: The emissions coming out of 1st level treatment is given in table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Emissions from 1st level E-waste treatment
5.3. ESTFOR 2ND LEVEL TREATMENT
20
Emissions Dismantling Segregation
Air √ (fugitive) X
Water X X
Noise √ √ Land/ Soil Contamination due tospillage
√ √
Generation of hazardous waste √ √
5.3.1. Input: Decontaminated E-waste consisting segregated non hazardous e-waste like
plastic, CRT, circuit board and cables.
5.3.2.Unit Operations:
There are three unit operations at second level of E-waste treatment.
1. Hammering
2. Shredding
3. Special treatment Processes comprising of
(i) CRT treatment consisting of separation of funnels and screen glass.
(ii) Electromagnetic separation
(iii) Eddy current separation
(iv) Density separation using water
The two major unit operations are hammering and shredding. The major objective of
these two unit operations is size reduction. The third unit operation consists of special
treatment processes. Electromagnetic and eddy current separation utilizes properties of
different elements like electrical conductivity, magnetic properties and density to separate
ferrous, non ferrous metal and precious metal fractions. Plastic fractions consisting of
sorted plastic after 1stlevel treatment, plastic mixture and plastic with flame retardants
after second level treatment, glass and lead are separated during this treatment. The
efficiency of this treatment determines the recovery rate of metal and segregated-waste
fractions for third level treatment. The simplified version of this treatment technology
showing combination of all three unit operations is given in Figure 5.2.
1. The technology for sorting, treatment, including recycling and disposal of E-waste is
fully based on dry process using mechanical operations.
2. The pre-comminuting stage includes separation of Plastic, CRT and remaining non
CRT based e-waste. Equipments like hammer mill and shear shredder will be used at
comminuting stage to cut and pulverize e-waste and prepare it as a feedstock to
magnetic and eddy current separation.
21
E-wastes
Figure 5.2 Process Flow Chart of Non CRT Based E-Waste Treatment
3. A heavy-duty hammer mill grinds the material to achieve separation of inert materials
and metals.
22
Pre- comminuting for a rough liberation
Magnetic & eddy current separation of ferrous and non ferrous metals
Cyclone
Liberation of Non Ferrous Metals
Classifying for unproved separation
Subsequent comminution of unliberated materials
Electrostatic separation of metal fraction
Comminuting using hammer mill and shredder
Dust Extraction Optional gravity or eddy
current separation of course metal fraction
Separation of Cu, Al, Au,Ag and other precious metals
Fractions
(Cu, Al, Au Ag and other precious metals)
Separation of Fe & non- Fe (Cu, Al, Au, Ag and other
precious metals)
4. After separation of metals from inert material, metal fraction consisting of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals are subjected to magnetic current separation. After separation of
Ferrous containing fraction, Non-ferrous fraction is classified into different non-metal
fractions, electrostatic separation and pulverization.
5. The ground material is then screened and de dusted subsequently followed by
separation of valuable metal fraction using electrostatic, gravimetric separation and eddy
current separation technologies fractions of copper (Cu), aluminum (Al), residual
fractions containing gold (Au), silver (Ag) and other precious metals. This results in
recovery of clean metallic concentrates, which are sold for further refining to smelters.
Sometimes water may be used for separation at last stage.
6. Electric conductivity-based separation separates materials of different electric
conductivity (or resistivity) mainly different fractions of non-ferrous metals from E-
waste. Eddy current separation technique has been used based on electrical conductivity
for non ferrous metal separation from e-waste. Its operability is based on the use of rare
earth permanent magnets. When a conductive particle is exposed to an alternating
magnetic field, eddy currents will be induced in that object, generating a magnetic field to
oppose the magnetic field. The interactions between the magnetic field and the induced
eddy currents lead to the appearance of electro dynamic actions upon conductive non-
ferrous particles and are responsible for the separation process.
7. The efficacy of the recycling system is dependent on the expected yields/output of the
recycling system. The expected yields/ output from the recycling system are dependent
on the optimization of separation parameters. These parameters are given below:
Particle size
Particle shape
Feeding rate/ RPM
Optimum operations
23
Figure 5.3Non- ferrous Metal Distribution vs. Size Range for PC Scrap
Figure 5.3.2 shows the non- ferrous metal distribution (which forms the backbone of
financial viability of recycling system) as a function of size range for PC scrap. It can be
seen that aluminum is mainly distributed in the coarse fractions (+6.7 mm), but other
metals are mainly distributed in the fine fractions (−5 mm). Size properties are essential
for choosing an effective separation technique. Therefore, eddy current separator is best
for granular nonferrous materials having size greater than 5mm. The eddy current
separation will ensure better separation of Al fraction in comparison to fraction
containing Cu, Ag and Au.
8. Particle shape is dependent on comminuting and separation.
9. The feeding rate can be optimized based on the speed and width of the conveyor.
5.3.2.1. CRT Treatment Technology
The salient features of CRT treatment technology are given below.
1. CRT is manually removed from plastic/ wooden casing.
2. Picture tube is split and the funnel section is then lifted off the screen section and the
internal metal mask can be lifted to facilitate internal phosphor coating.
24
3. Internal phosphor coating is removed by using an abrasive wire brush and a strong
vacuum system to clean the inside and recover the coating. The extracted air is cleaned
through an air filter system to collect the phosphor dust.
Different types of splitting technology used are given below.
NiChrome hot wire cutting
Thermal shock
Laser cutting
Diamond wire method
Diamond saw separation
Water-jet separation
5.3.3.Output: The output from the 2nd level treatment technology is given below.
1. Ferrous metal scrap (secondary raw material)
2. Non ferrous metal scrap, mainly copper and aluminum
3. Precious metal scrap mainly silver, gold, & palladium
4. Plastic consisting of sorted plastic, plastic with flame retardants and plastic
mixture
5. Glass fraction (secondary raw material)
6. Lead (secondary raw material)
5.3.4. Emissions: The emissions coming out of 2nd level treatment is given in table 5.2.
25
Table 5.2 Emissions from 2ndLevel E-wastes Treatment
Unit Operations / Emissions Dismantling Shredding Special Treatment Process
CRT Electro-
magnetic
Eddy
Current
Density
separation
Air √(fugitive) √
(fugitive)
X √ (fugitive) √ (fugitive) X
Water X X √ X X
Noise √ √ √ √ √ X
Land/ Soil Contamination
due to spillage
√ √ √ √ √ √
Generation of hazardous
waste
√ √ √ X X X
5.4. EST FOR 3RD LEVEL TREATMENT
The hazardous material separated during the 1st level treatment and the output from
the 2ndlevel is subjected to the 3rd level treatment. This facility need not always exists with
the first two treatment locations, but may be located at different places. The treatment
includes recycle /recovery of valuable materials using processes like smelting, refining
etc.
26
The input, output and unit operations at 3rd level treatment are described in table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Input, Output and Unit Operations at 3rdLevel Treatment
6. CASE STUDY OF RECYCLING AND DUMPING OF E-WASTE
A case study of environmental contamination from electronic waste recycling at
Guiyu, southeast China done by Anna Leung, Zong Wei Cai and Ming Hung Wong in
2005 reported in the Journal of Material Cycles Waste Management is briefly described
below:
27
Input/ WEEE Residues Unit Operation/ Disposal/ Recycling Technique
Output
Sorted Plastic Recycling Plastic Product
Plastic Mixture Energy Recovery/ Incineration
Energy Recovery
Plastic Mixture with BFR Incineration Energy Recovery
CRT Breaking/ Recycling Glass Cullet
Lead bearing residue Secondary Lead Smelter Lead
Ferrous metal scrap Secondary steel/ iron recycling
Iron
Non Ferrous metal Scrap Secondary copper and aluminum smelting
Copper/ Aluminum
Precious Metals Au/ Ag separation Gold/ Silver
Batteries (Lead, Acid/ Nickel metal Hydride (Ni-MH) and Li – ion
Lead recovery and smelting remelting and separation
Lead
CFC Recovery/ Reuse and Incineration
CFC/ Energy recovery
Oil Recovery/ Reuse and Incineration
Oil recovery/ energy
Capacitors Incineration Energy recovery
Mercury Separation and Distillation Mercury
Guiyu is made up of several villages located in the Chaozhou region of Guangdong
Province, 250km northeast of HongKong. Since 1995, the traditionally rice-growing
community has become an e-waste recycling center for e-waste arriving from the United
States, Hong Kong and from other countries. In Guiyu, recycling operations consist of
toner sweeping, dismantling electronic equipment, selling computer monitor yokes to
copper recovery operations, plastic chipping and melting, burning wires to recover
copper, heating circuit boards over honeycombed coal blocks and using acid chemical
strippers to recover gold and other metals. Not all activities are related to recovery; some
include open burning of unwanted e-waste and their open dumping. Operations for the
recovery of copper wires through the burning of polyvinyl chloride and flame retardant-
protected cables(i.e., polybrominated diphenyl ethers, PBDEs) can release toxic
polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins
(PCDDs/PBDDs) and furans(PCDFs/PBDFs) and the open burning of computer casings
and circuit boards stripped of metal parts can produce toxic fumes and ashes containing
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAHs). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which have
been widely used as plasticizers, as coolants and lubricants in transformers and
capacitors, and as hydraulic and heat exchange fluids, may also be present in the e-waste
stream. In the study, the total concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
ranged from 98.2 to 514 μg/kg in the sediment samples and from 93.7 to 593 μg/kg in the
soil samples. The concentration of polychlorinated bi phenyls (PCBs) varied from 5.3 to
743 μg/kg in the sediment samples and from 22.7 to 102 μg/kg in the soil samples. The
highest concentration of poly brominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) observed was 32.3
μg/kg in sediment and 1169 μg/kg in the soil. Concentration of heavy metals such as
cadmium detected in the sediment ranged from 0.1 to .9 mg/kg, chromium from 3.4 to
43.5 mg/kg, copper from 6.3 to 528 mg/kg, nickel 11.3 to 120 mg/kg, lead 39.4 to 316
mg/kg and zinc 45.2 to 249 mg/kg. Concentration of cadmium detected in the soil
ranged from nil to 3.1 mg/kg, chromium from 3.4 to 74.9 mg/kg, copper from 9.2 to 712
mg/kg, nickel 8.4 to 185 mg/kg, lead 55.4 to 104 mg/kg and zinc 78 to 258 mg/kg.
6.1. MATERIALS AND METHODS
28
6.1.1 Sampling Sites
A preliminary survey of contaminant levels in Guiyu, located in Guangdong
Province, China, was conducted in August 2003. Sediment samples were collected from
two duck ponds (A & B) and at three different places along the Lianjiang River (River 1,
River 2, River 3). Duck ponds A and B are located near open fields where dumping and
open burning of e-waste and acid leaching of printed circuit boards are carried out. River
1 is located alongside a residential area away from the dumpsite but near printed circuit
heating workshops. River 2 site is located near the open fields. River 3 site is in Heping
town, located about 16km downstream from Guiyu. Soil was collected from a burnt
plastic dump site and from a printer roller dump site. A reservoir located in the northern
part of Guiyu, approximately 6km from the central e-waste processing region where
impacts from e-waste were expected to be smaller, served as a control site. Both soil and
sediment were collected from this site.
6.1.2. Sample Collection and Preparation
Samples were collected from each study site at a depth of0–10cm using a stainless
steel shovel. All samples we restored in clean polyethylene bags (Ziploc) to minimize
sample contamination and were kept in ice-filled coolers at approximately 4°C for
transport to the laboratory, where they were transferred and wrapped in aluminum foil
and stored at −20°C. Soil and sediment samples were freeze dried; sieved (<1mm) to
remove stones, roots, and coarse materials; and then stored in a desiccator prior to
analysis.
6.2. SAMPLE ANALYSES
The soil samples from burnt plastic dump site and printer roller dump site, reservoir
and sediment samples from duck ponds A & B, River sites 1,2& 3 were analyzed for
PAHs, PCBs, PBDEs, and heavy metals.
29
6.2.1. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
5 g of sample was extracted was extracted with acetone and dichloromethane and
concentrated in rotary evaporator. The extract was analysed using gas chromatography/
mass spectrometry analysis.
6.2.2. Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls
Sample was extracted was extracted with acetone and dichloromethane and analysed
using gas chromatography / mass spectrometry analysis.
6.2.3. Poly Brominated Diphenyl Ethers
PBDE analyses were conducted using a gas chromatography/ion trap mass
spectrometry method.
6.2.4. Heavy Metals
The samples were finely ground and 0.250 g of each sample was used for the
determination of heavy metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) concentrations by microwave
digestion.
6.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The total concentration and individual concentrations of the 16 USEPA priority
PAHs, PCBs, PBDEs and heavy metals in the sediment and soil samples are shown.
6.3.1. Sediment
Total PAH concentrations in the sediment ranged from 98.2 to 514μg/kg. The highest
concentration was at duck pond A. Both duck ponds A and B are located
approximately20m from a road; therefore, the elevated PAHs of these sediment samples
30
may be partly attributed to PAH emissions from vehicular traffic in addition to the open
burning of e-waste in the surrounding fields. Interestingly, the concentration of the
sediment at the reservoir was higher than at the residential site (river-1). A possible
explanation for the higher concentration at the reservoir may be the burning of incense
and paper offerings, which is a Chinese custom for paying respect to ancestors. Many
graves were seen on the hills surrounding the reservoir and below the water level; the
area became a reservoir only a few years ago. The total PAH concentration of sediment
collected from river-2, located in Guiyu, was approximately four times that of the
sediment collected from within the residential area (river-1) and approximately twice the
concentration of the sediment collected from the Lianjiang River in the town of Heping,
approximately 16km downstream. The concentrations of the seven USEPA carcinogenic
PAHs in the sediments ranged from 13.2 (reservoir) to 122μg/kg (duck pond A) and
accounted for 6% (reservoir) to32% (river-2) of the total PAH concentrations. With the
exception of the reservoir, the percentage of carcinogenic PAHs were similar (23.7%–
31.5%). Benzo(a)pyrene accounted for 16%, 14%, 12%, and 5% of the total carcinogenic
compounds for river-2, duck pond B, duck pond A and river-1, respectively. It was not
detected in river-3 or the reservoir.
Concentration of PAHs in sediment is shown in table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Concentration of PAHs in Sediment (μg/kg dry wt)
USEPA PAHs Duck pond A Duck pond B
River-1 River-2 River-3 Reservoir
Two-ringNaphthalene 27.3 18.5 18.1 25.8 13.7 23.2Three-ringAcenaphthylene ND ND ND ND ND NDAcenaphthene 75.4 ND 1.9 6.4 9.2 46.9Fluorene 35.8 13.3 2.2 16.6 ND 12.6
Phenanthrene 110 67.9 25.5 67.3 35.5 55.3Anthracene 22.0 ND 1.7 5.9 4.6 10.9
Four-ring
Fluoranthene 65.4 57.2 12.1 48.4 41.0 45.1Pyrene 41.0 35.0 8.6 43.0 32.1 32.4
Benzo(a)anthracene 15.2 18.7 3.8 23.6 13.3 5.6
31
Chrysene 34.4 43.5 11.3 46.1 30.6 7.6Five-ring
Benzo(a)pyrene 14.4 12.8 1.5 17.5 ND ND
Benzo(b + k)fluoranthene
42.2 ND 11.3 ND ND ND
Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
ND ND ND ND ND ND
Six-ring
Indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene
15.7 18.7 ND 24.1 ND ND
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene 15.6 22.1 ND 26.7 ND ND∑ 16 PAHs 514 308 98.2 352 180 240
∑7 Carcinogenic PAHs
122 93.8 28.0 111 43.8 13.2
% Carcinogenic PAHs 23.7 30.5 28.5 31.7 24.4 5.5
Table 6.2 lists some of the most toxic and environmentally prevalent PCB congeners
found in the sediment samples. The samples were analysed for a total of 66 PCB
congeners, which included three dioxin-like PCBs (PCB-105, -118, and -157) and all
seven indicator PCBs (PCB-28,-52, -101, -118, -138, -153, -180). The indicator PCBs are
known to be persistent in the environment and also to bioaccumulate in the food chain.
The total PCB concentration of duck pond A was comparable to that of duck pond B, and
both were below the Canadian interim sediment quality guideline of 34.1μg/kg, whereas
there was a large variation between the sediment collected from the two different
locations of the Lianjiang River. River-2, in the vicinity of e-waste dumping and open
burning, was highly contaminated by PCBs, with levels 53 times those at river-1, located
near a residential area. PCBs were not detected in the sediments from the reservoir and
river-3, located approximately 16km downstream of Guiyu in the town of Heping.
32
Table 6.2Concentration of PCBs in Sediment (μg/kg dry wt)
PCB congenerIUPAC number
SedimentDuck Pond A
Duck Pond B
River 1 River 2
PCB-1 ND ND ND NDPCB-2 ND ND ND NDPCB-3 ND ND ND 2.39Total mono PCBs ND ND ND 2.39PCB-4 ND ND ND 33.6PCB-6 ND ND ND 10.1PCB-8 ND ND ND 66.6PCB-9 ND ND ND 4.52PCB-15 ND ND ND 23.5Total di PCBs ND ND ND 122PCB-16 0.22 ND ND 47.7PCB-18 ND ND ND 40.3PCB-19 ND ND ND 10.1PCB-20 ND ND ND 39.2PCB-22 ND ND ND 18.8PCB-25 ND ND ND 5.28PCB-27 ND ND ND 7.09PCB-28 ND ND ND 115PCB-29 ND ND ND 0.98PCB-34 ND ND ND 0.53Total di PCBs ND ND ND 294PCB-40 ND 0.24 0.33 31.3PCB-42 ND ND ND 14.7PCB-44 0.28 0.24 0.33 31.3PCB-47 ND 0.23 0.21 27.1PCB-52 0.29 0.27 0.42 33.5PCB-56 0.10 0.17 0.46 2.25PCB-66 0.31 0.22 0.79 8.57PCB-67 ND ND ND 0.94PCB-69 ND ND ND NDPCB-71 ND ND ND 13.0PCB-74 ND 0.11 0.27 6.46Total tetra PCBs 1.91 2.69 5.11 258PCB-82 ND 0.06 ND 0.70PCB-87 0.15 0.11 0.42 2.40PCB-92 ND ND ND 1.34PCB-93 ND ND ND 8.16PCB-99 0.18 0.11 0.30 3.22PCB-101 0.28 ND 0.90 6.74PCB-105 ND ND ND 2.41PCB-110 ND 0.06 ND 0.70PCB-118 0.33 0.20 1.06 6.29PCB-119 ND ND ND 0.17Total penta PCBs 1.66 1.14 4.92 43.9PCB-128 ND ND 0.37 1.43PCB-134 ND ND ND 0.32PCB-136 ND ND 0.13 0.59PCB-138 0.48 0.21 1.09 5.68PCB-144 ND ND 0.14 0.81PCB-146 ND ND ND 0.72PCB-147 ND ND ND 0.19PCB-151 ND ND 0.14 0.72PCB-153 0.32 0.15 0.87 4.56PCB-157 ND ND ND 0.44PCB-158 ND ND ND 0.65Total hexa PCBs 1.34 0.67 4.04 15.9PCB-173 ND ND ND ND
33
PCB-174 ND ND ND 0.46PCB-177 ND ND ND 0.27PCB-179 ND ND ND 0.17PCB-180 ND 0.14 0.24 1.15PCB-187 ND ND ND 0.42PCB-190 ND ND ND 0.73PCB-191 ND ND ND NDTotal hepta PCBs ND 0.14 0.32 5.20PCB-194 ND ND ND NDPCB-195 ND ND ND NDPCB-199 ND ND ND NDPCB-203 ND ND ND NDTotal octa PCBs ND ND ND NDPCB-206 ND ND ND NDPCB-207 ND ND ND NDPCB-208 ND ND ND NDTotal nona PCBs ND ND ND NDPCB-209 ND ND ND NDTotal deca PCBs ND ND ND NDTotal PCBs 5.3 4.7 14.1 743Total indicator PCBsa
1.7 1.0 4.6 173
PCB WHO –TEQb 3.27 2.04 1.06 1.09
PCB, polychlorinated biphenyls; IUPAC, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry;WHO-TEQ,World Health Organization/toxic equivalentaTotal indicator PCBs sum of concentrations of PCB-28, -52, -101, -118, -138, -153, -180bPCB WHO-TEQ sum of WHO-TEQ concentrations of PCB-105, -118, -157
A total of 43 mono- to hepta-brominated substituted poly brominated diphenyl ethers
(PBDEs) congeners were detected in the sediment collected from river-2.Although the
data were limited, it appears that the river sediment was contaminated by e-waste
activities such as dumping, dismantling, and open burning.
The heavy metal concentrations measured in sediment are shown in Table 6.3 together
with some soil quality standards. Cu, Pb, and Zn were the most abundant metals among
the environmental samples. E-waste, such as printed circuit boards dumped along the
bank of Lianjiang River, may be responsible for the high Cu concentration atriver-2. The
Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn concentrations for river-2 exceeded the respective Dutch optimum
values. For the reservoir soil, the heavy metal concentrations were below or close to the
limits for the natural background as defined by the Chinese Environmental Quality
Standards. The concentrations of heavy metals at duck pond A and duck pond B were
very similar, however, Cr at duck pond B was twice that of duck pond A. The Pb contents
of the duck ponds were slightly higher than the Pb content of the reservoir sediment.
34
6.3.2. Soil
The soil PAH concentrations were highest at the printer roller dump site and were
dominated by two- and three-ring compounds. The concentration profile for the soil
collected from the burnt plastic dump site differed from the printer roller dump site. The
total PAH concentration at the reservoir was low compared to the other sites. Of the
sediment and soil samples, soil from the burnt plastic dump site was the most toxic
35
Table 6.3 Heavy Metal Concentration in Sediment (mg/kg dry wt)
Sampling site Heavy metalsCd Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn
Sediment
Duck pond-A ND 21.2
32.2
20.6
57.7
79.6
Duck pond-B 0.3
43.5
30.9
20.8
53.1
84.5
River-1 0.1
17.6
113
10.1
316
86.8
River-2 0.9
29.2 528
120 94.3
249
River-3 0.5
27.3
20.1
12.6
118
175
Reservoir ND 3.4 9.2 8.4 55.4
78.0
Reservoir ND 3.4 9.2 8.4 55.4
78.0
Soil quality standardsDutchOptimum value 0.
8100 36 35 85 14
0Action value 12 380 19
0210
530
720
China
Grade I (natural background) 0.2
90 35 40 35 100
Grade II (agricultural and related use)
0.3
200 100
50 300
250
Grade III (industrial activity) 1 300 400
200
500
500
because the concentration of carcinogenic compounds contributed to 43%of the total
concentration. The target set by the Dutch government for unpolluted soil is20–50μg/kg.
Therefore, as all of the soils sampled were above 50μg/kg, the soils were considered to be
polluted by PAHs. As there are many open e-waste burning sites in Guiyu, it was
postulated that PAHs would be transported atmospherically by wind and subsequently
deposited on land. Concentration of PAHs in the soil collected is given in table 6.4.
Table 6.4Concentration of PAHs in soil (μg/kg dry wt)
USEPA PAHs Burnt plastic Printer roller
Reservoir
Two-ring
Naphthalene 45.4 294 27.3Three-ring
Acenaphthylene ND 14.2 0.7
Acenaphthene 6.6 64.6 7.5Fluorene 9.7 36.5 4.0
Phenanthrene 58.8 131 23.1
Anthracene 8.0 9.7 9.7 2.1
Four-ring
Fluoranthene 39.1 16.4 9.6Pyrene 41.0 27.3 8.5
Benzo(a)anthracene 23.7 ND 1.6
Chrysene 48.3 ND 4.3Five-ring
Benzo(b +k) fluoranthene
56.5 ND 4.9
Benzo(a)pyrene 22.7 ND NDDibenz(a,h)anthracene 4.5 ND NDSix ringIndeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene
29.1 ND ND
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene 34.5 ND ND∑ 16 PAHs 428 593 93.7
∑7 Carcinogenic PAHsa
185 ND 10.8
% Carcinogenic PAHs 43.2 ND 11.6
36
The concentration of PCBs in soil collected is given in table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Concentration of PCBs in soil
(μg/kg dry wt)
PCB congenerIUPAC number
soilBurnt plastic Dump site
Printer rollerDump site
PCB-1 ND NDPCB-2 ND NDPCB-3 ND NDTotal mono PCBs ND NDPCB-4 ND NDPCB-6 ND NDPCB-8 ND NDPCB-9 ND NDPCB-15 ND NDTotal di PCBs ND NDPCB-16 ND 7.00PCB-18 ND 8.27PCB-19 ND 0.84PCB-20 ND 14.4PCB-22 ND 3.25PCB-25 ND NDPCB-27 ND NDPCB-28 ND 22.5PCB-29 ND NDPCB-34 ND NDTotal di PCBs ND 55.1PCB-40 0.48 5.33PCB-42 ND 2.06PCB-44 0.48 5.33PCB-47 ND 3.79PCB-52 0.87 5.79PCB-56 0.34 NDPCB-66 0.57 2.01PCB-67 0.94 NDPCB-69 ND NDPCB-71 13.0 NDPCB-74 6.46 1.41Total tetra PCBs 5.99 38.0PCB-82 0.29 NDPCB-87 0.60 0.46PCB-92 0.31 NDPCB-93 0.90 1.08PCB-99 0.63 0.39PCB-101 1.31 0.84PCB-105 0.51 0.76PCB-110 0.29 0.30PCB-118 1.01 0.92PCB-119 ND NDTotal penta PCBs 8.14 5.87PCB-128 0.41 0.23PCB-134 ND NDPCB-136 0.20 NDPCB-138 1.50 0.82PCB-144 ND NDPCB-146 0.41 NDPCB-147 ND NDPCB-151 ND ND
37
PCB-153 0.91 0.40PCB-157 ND NDPCB-158 0.21 NDTotal hexa PCBs 6.32 2.96PCB-173 ND NDPCB-174 0.12 NDPCB-177 ND NDPCB-179 ND NDPCB-180 0.43 0.21PCB-187 0.25 NDPCB-190 0.51 NDPCB-191 ND NDTotal hepta PCBs 2.04 0.21PCB-194 ND NDPCB-195 ND NDPCB-199 ND NDPCB-203 0.18 NDTotal octa PCBs 0.18 NDPCB-206 ND NDPCB-207 ND NDPCB-208 ND NDTotal nona PCBs ND NDPCB-209 ND NDTotal deca PCBs ND NDTotal PCBs 22.7 102Total indicator PCBsa
6.0 31
PCB, polychlorinated biphenyls; IUPAC, International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry;WHO-TEQ,World Health Organization/toxic equivalentaTotal indicator PCBs sum of concentrations of PCB-28, -52, -101, -118, -138, -153, -180
The soil at the waste printer roller dumpsite also exhibited a notable presence of PCBs
(102μg/kg. The concentration was almost twice the allowable level of 60μg/kg for PCBs
in ambient soil stipulated by the former USSR Ministry ofHealth in 1991.
A total of 43 poly brominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congeners were detected in soil
collected from the burnt plastic dump site.The analyses indicated that PBDE mono- to
hepta-brominated congeners in soil had concentrations ranging from 0.26 to824μg/kg dry
wt. The concentrations of the highly lipophilic BDE-47, -99, -100, and -153 congeners in
the soil samples ranged from 2.70 to 615μg/kg andwere generally higher than the levels
in the sediment collected from the Lianjiang River. Soil from the burnt plastic site had a
BDE-183concentration that was almost 70 times that of soil fromthe printer roller dump
site. PBDE concentrations in the soil at the dumping sites of Guiyu were approximately
10–60 times those reported elsewhere.
Cu, Pb, and Zn were the most abundant metals among the environmental samples. Cu
concentrations at the printer roller dump site (712 mg/kg) exceeded the new Dutch list
action value of 190mg/kg. There were no other values that exceeded the Dutch action
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level with regard to the other heavy metals, however, the Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn
concentrations for the burnt plastic dump site, and the printer roller dump site exceeded
the respective Dutch optimum values. For the reservoir soil, the heavy metal
concentrations were below or close to the limits for the natural backgroundas defined by
the Chinese Environmental Quality Standards. Heavy metal concentration in the soil
samples collected is given table 6.6.
Of the study sites, the most seriously polluted were the burnt plastic and printer roller
dump sites. From the results study conducted, there was a better awareness of the
hazardous implications of e-waste recycling on the environment and human health.
Based on the data it was concluded that the analyses of environmental and human
samples collected from the area would show significant contamination by various
substances resulting directly from crude and inappropriate e-waste recycling practices.
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Table 6.6 Heavy Metal Concentration in Soil Samples (mg/kg dry wt)
Sampling site Heavy metalsCd Cr Cu Ni Pb Zn
SoilBurnt plastic dump site 1.7 28.
6496
155 104 258
Printer roller dump site 3.1 74.9
712
87.4
190 –
Reservoir ND 3.4 9.2 8.4 55.4
78.0
Soil quality standardsDutchOptimum value 0.8 100 36 35 85 140
Action value 12 380 190
210 530 720
China
Grade I (natural background) 0.2 90 35 40 35 100
Grade II (agricultural and related use)
0.3 200 100
50 300 250
Grade III (industrial activity) 1 300 400
200 500 500
7. STRATEGIES FOR COMBATING E- WASTE
7.1. LEGISLATION
Separate legislation for dealing with waste electrical and electronic equipments to
control aspects of production, recycle, reuse and disposal is need of the hour. Many
countries have such laws in place. In India, draft e-Waste (Management and Handling)
Rules have been published by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
India on 14.5.2010.
7.2. EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY (EPR)
Traditionally, the legislative approach toward environmental problems has been one
of ‘command and control’, largely addressing ‘end-of-pipe’ pollution problems. Now, the
emphasis is changing towards producer responsibility whereby those who produce good
sare then responsible for the environmental impacts throughout the whole of their life
cycle, from resource extraction to recycling, reuse and disposal (Nnorom et.al, 2008).
Implementation of EPR in the developing countries has become necessary in the light of
the present high level of trans-boundary movement of e-waste into the developing
countries and the absence of basic or state-of the-art facilities for sound end-of-life
material/energy recovery and disposal of e-waste.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) defined EPR as
“an environmental policy approach in which a producers’ responsibility for a product is
extended to the post-consumer stage of a products life cycle including its final disposal”
The main goals of EPR are:
• waste prevention and reduction;
• product reuse;
• increased use of recycled materials in production;
• reduced natural resource consumption;
• internalization of environmental costs into product prices
• energy recovery when incineration is considered appropriate
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Under EPR, the producer is expected to take back all electrical and electronic equipment
at the end of their life.
7.3.REDUCTION IN USE OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES (ROHS)
This aims at reducing the hazardous substances entering the atmosphere while
dismantling the e-waste by prescribing threshold limits for use of such substances in e-
waste.
8. CONCLUSION
Electronic and electrical equipments cannot be avoided in today’s world. So also is the
case of waste electronic and electrical equipments. As long as this is a necessary evil, it
has to be best managed to minimize its adverse impacts on environment. Through
innovative changes in product design under EPR, use of environmentally friendly
substitutes for hazardous substances, these impacts can be mitigated. A legal framework
has to be there for enforcing EPR, RoHS for attaining this goal. Adoption of
environmentally sound technologies for recycling and reuse of e-waste along with EPR
and RoHS offers workable solution for environmentally sound management of e-waste.
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REFERENCES
Bandhopadhyay, A. (2010) “Electronic Waste Management: Indian Practices and Guidelines” International Journal of Energy and Environment 1(5) pp. 193-807
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal – Document accessed in 10/2010
E-Waste Volume II, E-Waste Management Manual – United Nations Environment Program – accessed in 10/2010
Kurian Joseph (2007), “Electronic Waste Management in India-Issues and Strategies” Proc. On Eleventh International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium
Mark Anderson (2010) What an E-waste” IEEE-spectrum, September, 2010
Nnorom I.C., Osibanjo O (2008) “Overview of Electronic Waste (e-waste) Management Practices and Legislation in the Developed Countries” Journal of Resource Conservation and Recycling 52(2008) 843-858
Sathish Sinha (2006) E-waste Time to Act Now –Toxic Alert, accessed in 10/2010
The Basel Action Network “Exporting Harm – The High Tech Trashing of Asia” accessed in 10/2010
Waste Water Engineering (2003), Metcalf and Eddy fourth edition
www.moef.nic.in- website of Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India.
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