1500s – Latin and Greek; Language is treated at the sentence level only; Sentences are translated from L2 to L1 and vice versa

after individual points of grammar are explained; Little or no consideration of the spoken language; Focus on accuracy (reading and writing skills); Aims at enabling the students to read and translate

literature written in L2 and to further students’ general intellectual development;

Classes conducted in L1; Grammar rules are learned deductively; Attention to the language form, not content.

18th and 19th centuries - Sauveur and Franke; The sentence is the main object of interest; Focus on accuracy; L2 use only; Development of oral skills, pronunciation is fundamental; Concepts and vocabulary are taught through miming,

realia, and visual materials; Grammar is taught inductively; Student-centered.

20th century – Bloomfield, Skinner, World War II; Based on behaviorist theory (Skinner) and structural

linguistics; Positive reinforcement – effort to prevent student errors; L2 use only; Focus on inductive grammar and accuracy; Habit formation through drilling of sentence patterns and

substitution drilling; Memorization; Pronunciation is stressed from the beginning; Little placing of language in any kind of real-life context; Actions and visual materials used to make meaning clear; Teacher-centered.

Presentation-Practice-Production

Structural-situational teaching; Teacher introduces a situation which contextualizes the

language; Students practice the language, using accurate

reproduction techniques; Students use the new language on their own.

Curran, 1950s; Teacher is a counselor and a paraphraser; Students work together to develop what aspects of the

language they want to learn; Sense of community in the learning group; Interaction is encouraged; No syllabus or textbook to follow; L2 use only.

Lozanov, 1970s; Physical environment is a concern; Students need to feel comfortable and relaxed to lower

affective filter; Background music; Teacher-controlled; Techer is trained to conduct the classes through games,

songs, classical arts, and pleasure; Nonconscious acquisition of the language; Students are brought into a childlike state.

Asher, 1970s; Based on the coordination of language and physical

movement; Teacher gives commands to students in L2, and students

respond with whole-body actions; Quickly recognition of meaning in L2; Grammar is taught inductively; Language is learned primarily by listening; Language learning must engage the right hemisphere of

the brain and involve no stress; L1 and L2 use; Focus on oral fluency and meaning; Little or no error correction; Realia, posters, charts, and pictures.

Total Physical Response

Gattegno, 1960s; Emphasis on the autonomy of the student; Teacher monitors and observes the students’ efforts; Teacher uses mouthing word and hand gesture

techniques; Pronunciation is a key element; Student-centered; Structures are constantly reviewed; Vocabulary choice is important; Language consists of trial and error; Language is practiced in meaningful contexts. Specialized teaching materials: Cuisenaire rods, sound-

color chart.

Wilkins, 1970s and 1980s; Characterized as a broad approach to teaching; Focus on communicative skills, functional competence,

and language structures; Use of constructs rather than rote memorized patterns; Introduction of authentic materials into the learning

situation; Emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction

in L2 (pair and group work); Enhancement of the students’ own personal experiences; Usual activities are roleplays, interviews, information gaps,

games, language exchanges, surveys, and learning by teaching.

Communicative Language Teaching

Prabhu, 2000; Performance of meaningful tasks; Focus on the task, not on the structure; Use of authentic language; Teacher as a counselor or observer; Student-centered; Three stages to be followed: pre-task, task cycle,

language focus; Usual activities are information gaps, completions,

class/group discussions.

Lewis, 1990s; Language consists of multi-word prefabricated chunks

(collocations, fixed and semi-fixed expressions and idioms), frequently occurred in dialogues;

Vocabulary is prized over grammar; Usual activities are listening and reading in L2, first and

second language comparisons and translation, guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context, using dictionaries/reference tools; working with language corpuses;

Observe-Hypothesize-Experiment cycle replaces the Present-Practice-Produce Paradigm.

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