Chapter 9

©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Col©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Cole Publishinge Publishing

Becoming an Effective Becoming an Effective Policy AdvocatePolicy Advocate

Bruce Jansson, University of Southern CaliforniaBruce Jansson, University of Southern California

PowerPoint created byPowerPoint created by

Gretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD CandidateGretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD Candidate

University of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California

School of Social WorkSchool of Social Work


Chapter 9Chapter 9Presenting and Defending Policy Presenting and Defending Policy Proposal in Steps Five and Six of Proposal in Steps Five and Six of

Policy Analysis Policy Analysis


Presenting and Defending Presenting and Defending Policy ProposalsPolicy Proposals

Policy advocates must write creative policy Policy advocates must write creative policy proposals and convince others to accept them in proposals and convince others to accept them in order to be successfulorder to be successful

Policy advocates defend proposals by: Policy advocates defend proposals by: – Having one-on-one discussionsHaving one-on-one discussions– Making presentations to large audiencesMaking presentations to large audiences– Engaging in debatesEngaging in debates– Issuing memorandaIssuing memoranda– Writing reports and editorialsWriting reports and editorials– Using the mass mediaUsing the mass media


Styles of CommunicationStyles of Communication

Friendly vs. Adversarial Communication– In friendly communication, policy advocates

try to decrease opposition to a proposal with conflict reducing techniques

– In adversarial communications, a policy advocate tries to best a person or group with opposing points of view through debates or hardball negotiations

– Combining elements of both is often needed


Proposals and IdeologyProposals and Ideology

Ideology powerfully shapes the content Ideology powerfully shapes the content and tenor of policy debatesand tenor of policy debates– Debates are more likely to be adversarial if each Debates are more likely to be adversarial if each

sides’ positions are shaped by ideological sides’ positions are shaped by ideological differencesdifferences

– They debates are often less conflictual when the They debates are often less conflictual when the focus is on relatively small details that are less focus is on relatively small details that are less likely to involve basic valueslikely to involve basic values


Proposals and IdeologyProposals and Ideology

The political context also strongly The political context also strongly influences the outcomes of debatesinfluences the outcomes of debates – The state of the economy, public perception of a The state of the economy, public perception of a

problem, and whether one party has a majority problem, and whether one party has a majority can all set the terms of debatecan all set the terms of debate

The effects of ideology on policy debates The effects of ideology on policy debates are sometimes muted by other factorsare sometimes muted by other factors– The tangible benefits received from certain The tangible benefits received from certain

policiespolicies– Personal experiencePersonal experience


Electoral Politics and ProposalsElectoral Politics and Proposals

Policy proposals and policy persuasion lie at the Policy proposals and policy persuasion lie at the heart of political campaigns heart of political campaigns – Candidates sometimes avoid issues they perceive as Candidates sometimes avoid issues they perceive as

no-winno-win– They sometimes avoid issues that they think will They sometimes avoid issues that they think will

polarize their potential supporterspolarize their potential supporters– They sometimes only take fuzzy positions on issuesThey sometimes only take fuzzy positions on issues– They sometimes take contradictory positions on They sometimes take contradictory positions on

specific issues, emphasizing different points to specific issues, emphasizing different points to different audiencesdifferent audiences


Combative PersuasionCombative Persuasion

Combative persuasion is the use of confrontive strategies to modify the opinions and actions of those who oppose themThere are 3 kinds:1. Persuaders debate an adversary hoping to convince

observers to choose their point of view over that of the adversary

2. Persuaders use coercive, one-on-one confrontation to change an adversary’s position

3. Persuaders negotiate with adversaries, deciding whether and when to make concessions and accept the other person’s concessions


Adversarial DebatesAdversarial Debates

The structure of an adversarial debate:The structure of an adversarial debate:– There are usually three partiesThere are usually three parties

the persuader

the adversary

an audience of observers

– The debate usually follows a general format where The debate usually follows a general format where one person presents a proposal, the other persons one person presents a proposal, the other persons criticizes it, and the initiator defends itcriticizes it, and the initiator defends it

– The persuader often hopes to change the minds of The persuader often hopes to change the minds of both their immediate adversary and the audienceboth their immediate adversary and the audience



There are numerous arguments a debater can There are numerous arguments a debater can use against his/her opponent:use against his/her opponent:– Attack the values implicit or explicit in the proposal– Attack the proposal’s feasibility– Attack the opponent’s motives – Attack some unanticipated or adverse consequences

of the proposal– Attack the opponent’s use of specific analogies– Attack the legislator’s uses of data and analytic

assumptions



The arguments a debater can use against The arguments a debater can use against his/her opponent (cont.):his/her opponent (cont.):– Attack implicit models of human motivation– Attack the opponent’s conception of the chain of

events that would follow the enactment of his proposal

– Expose the vagueness in the proposal– Attack unacceptable trade-offs in the proposal– Argue that the opponent’s proposal will be rendered

ineffective by other events– Offer a counterproposal



The arguments a debater can use against The arguments a debater can use against his/her opponent (cont.):his/her opponent (cont.):– Use arguments drawn from the analysis of social

problems – Attack the opponent’s research flaws, such as:

Failure to consider other variables

Use of variables that do not accurately measure the problem

Failure to test theory with various populations

Erroneous use of statistical procedures


Coercive MessagesCoercive Messages

Policy advocates may use coercive messages when:– They believe that decision makers will oppose

their position – Cooperative messages will not work

Coercive messages often begin with a formal demand that includes a threat– Ex: Litigation, protests, sending delegations to

higher authorities, publicizing the issue through the mass media


Coercive MessagesCoercive Messages

Coercive messages are effective when decision makers capitulate– They either accept the merits of the arguments, or – They fear political or other costs to themselves

However, coercive messages can have drawbacks:– Retaliation– Escalation– Creating a lose-lose situation


NegotiationsNegotiations

Negotiations: Different participants engage in an extended discussion to try to reach an agreement that will resolve an issue under contention

Both friendly and adversarial approaches can be used



Example of a friendly approach:Example of a friendly approach:– Both sides imagine and brainstorm alternative Both sides imagine and brainstorm alternative

solutionssolutions

Example of a “hardball” approach:Example of a “hardball” approach:– Usually begins with each side presenting an initial

position– If both sides believe it is necessary to resolve the

conflict, each party will gradually reveal where it is willing to make concessions

– The two sides often use delays, veiled or open threats, and inducements to persuade the other side to make concessions



Role of the mediator:Role of the mediator:– Operates between contending factions– Approaches both parties with an offer to mediate the

dispute– Talks with both sides to better understand their position– Facilitates a discussion in which both sides state their

concerns and wishes, brainstorm possible solutions, and move toward a settlement

There is no guarantee that negotiations will have a There is no guarantee that negotiations will have a positive outcomepositive outcomeA solution may have to be imposed by a higher-level A solution may have to be imposed by a higher-level person or by an person or by an arbitratorarbitrator


Adversarial vs. Friendly: Which Adversarial vs. Friendly: Which is Preferable?is Preferable?

Friendly communications and negotiations Friendly communications and negotiations are preferable to adversarial ones in many are preferable to adversarial ones in many situationssituations– Disputes settle more rapidly when both sides

make accommodations– Both sides are more likely to emerge with

respect for one another– Creative solutions are more likely to come

with friendly approaches


Adversarial vs. Friendly: Which Adversarial vs. Friendly: Which is Preferable?is Preferable?

In certain situations, adversarial approaches are In certain situations, adversarial approaches are not only necessary, but preferablenot only necessary, but preferable– When the other side refuses to engage in When the other side refuses to engage in

collaborative problem solvingcollaborative problem solving– When friendly approaches haven’t worked in the pastWhen friendly approaches haven’t worked in the past– When one or both sides is unwilling to change their When one or both sides is unwilling to change their

position, or because a victory is vital to their:position, or because a victory is vital to their:Well-beingWell-being

IdeologyIdeology

Self-interestSelf-interest


Persuading Specific AudiencesPersuading Specific Audiences

Friendly persuasionFriendly persuasion:: Techniques for Techniques for changing an audience’s beliefs and changing an audience’s beliefs and actions by engaging it in a cooperative actions by engaging it in a cooperative transaction rather than by confronting ittransaction rather than by confronting itCan include written, verbal, and Can include written, verbal, and PowerPoint presentationsPowerPoint presentationsThe presenter/persuader will need to:The presenter/persuader will need to:– Determine objectives– Diagnose the audience


Determining ObjectivesDetermining Objectives

Persuaders must first establish objectivesPersuaders must first establish objectives– Ambitious objectivesAmbitious objectives

Markedly modify the audience’s beliefs and to convince them to take specific actions

– Moderate objectivesModerate objectivesModify others’ beliefs as a precursor to having them take action

– Minimal objectivesMinimal objectivesMaintain an audience’s beliefs and actions

Educate or sensitize other persons about an issue or problem


Determining ObjectivesDetermining Objectives

Short-term objectivesShort-term objectives– Are usually modest, such as sensitizing an audience

to an issue

Long-term objectivesLong-term objectives– Are usually more ambitious, such as relaying a series

of messages to an audience that will ultimately change their beliefs and rally their support of a policy

– Might consist of a series of presentations, such interpersonal discussions, a memorandum, and a formal presentation


Diagnosing AudiencesDiagnosing Audiences

The persuader must also diagnose the The persuader must also diagnose the audienceaudienceWhat are the audience’s:What are the audience’s:– BeliefsBeliefs– Segree of motivation on an issueSegree of motivation on an issue– Fears and hopesFears and hopes– Extent to which situational or historical factors Extent to which situational or historical factors

may influence their response to a messagemay influence their response to a message– Degree of opposition to the messageDegree of opposition to the message



Audiences are most hostile to a message when they oppose its value premises and its fundamental argumentAudiences are less hostile when the message’s values and logic approximate their own beliefs – They are most receptive to messages relevant to their own

fears and hopes– Skillful persuaders try to allay fears and appeal to hopes

Audiences are also less hostile when they have a flexible or undefined position– A broad zone of tolerance is when an audience is open to new

ideas, values, or perspectives– Novel or unusual arguments can sometimes effective



Additional issues in diagnosing audiences:Additional issues in diagnosing audiences:– The social context may influence the audience’s

response to a particular measure– Their responses are also influenced by prior events– Audiences usually contain a range of perspectives;

their viewpoints are rarely homogeneousPersuaders must identify a mixed audience’s factions and address these subgroups in turnThey can also identify and appeal to common values, hopes, or aspirations

– The persuader should be careful not to be either too modest or too ambitious


Strategies of PersuasionStrategies of Persuasion

Persuaders must then develop a Persuaders must then develop a persuasion strategy by: persuasion strategy by: – Selecting a mediumSelecting a medium– Using a sequence of presentationsUsing a sequence of presentations– Selecting a formatSelecting a format– Developing a presentation styleDeveloping a presentation style


Selecting a MediumSelecting a Medium

Persuaders rely on symbols (words and visual aids) to influence audiences’ ideas and actions

These symbols can be presented in many ways: – speech– documents– graphic aids


Selecting a MediumSelecting a Medium

The benefits of each:The benefits of each:– PowerPoint PresentationsPowerPoint Presentations

Couples verbal content with visuals and audioSimplifies complex materials, and captures attention

– Oral CommunicationOral CommunicationAllows presenters to interact with the audiencePresenter can be flexible, changing the message as needed

– Written CommunicationWritten CommunicationAllows for precisionElicits relatively binding agreements Useful in explaining technical subjects


Using a Sequence of Using a Sequence of PresentationsPresentations

Persuaders can be more effective if they Persuaders can be more effective if they use a sequence of persuasive encountersuse a sequence of persuasive encounters

For example:For example:– Stage 1: Use informal personal encounters to Stage 1: Use informal personal encounters to

discover where people stand on an issuediscover where people stand on an issue– Stage 2: Make a presentation to educate the Stage 2: Make a presentation to educate the

audience about an issue audience about an issue – Stage 3: Hold a meeting to persuade them to Stage 3: Hold a meeting to persuade them to

take actiontake action


Selecting a FormatSelecting a Format

The format of a presentation is criticalThe format of a presentation is criticalIt should have a beginning, middle and It should have a beginning, middle and end:end:– Command your audience’s attention at the

outset– Impart important substantive information in

the middle– Conclude with the presentation’s essential

purpose Be specific about your objective, or “call to action”



Possible presentation formats include:Possible presentation formats include:– A Time Structure to discuss how a problem developed– A Topical Structure to explain a problem– A Criticism Structure to establish that a problem exists

and needs attention– An Association Structure to show a cause-effect

relationship– An Argument Structure to gain acceptance of a plan– A Refutation Structure to criticize someone else’s

statement of a problem or plan– A Directive Structure to influence people to take

action



A presentation can be fine-tuned by:A presentation can be fine-tuned by:– Adding case examples – Eliciting audience participation – Using visual aides, such as a charts


Developing an Effective Developing an Effective Presentation StylePresentation Style

A presenter must develop a persuasive A presenter must develop a persuasive delivery style that includes:delivery style that includes:– Relationship with the audience – Speech patterns– Use of gestures


Developing an Effective Developing an Effective Presentation StylePresentation Style

Tips for an effective presentation style:Tips for an effective presentation style:– Rehearse your presentationRehearse your presentation– Make eye contact with your audienceMake eye contact with your audience– Explain the presentation’s basic logicExplain the presentation’s basic logic– Use case examples and visual aides to gain attentionUse case examples and visual aides to gain attention– Make clear transitionsMake clear transitions– Avoid distracting habitsAvoid distracting habits– Pause if necessary to recollect thoughtsPause if necessary to recollect thoughts– Wrap up with a thoughtful conclusionWrap up with a thoughtful conclusion


Tactics for Specific AudiencesTactics for Specific Audiences

Hostile audiences have values or beliefs that predispose them to oppose a specific message– To decrease hostility:

Identify common values, perspectives, and practical concerns that link you to the audienceCite authorities or experts the audience is likely to respectDiscuss your own credentials or experiences that increase your credibilityPresent both sides of complex issues and freely admit that alternative viewpoints are inevitableUse humor and anecdotes



Apathetic audiences are those that are relatively uninterested in the topic– When presenting to this type of audience, DO NOT:

Overwhelm them with complex arguments or dataTell them that they should care about the issue

– Rather:Make the presentation interesting and lively Stress only a few themes or argumentsPresent a simple argumentOffer interesting and unusual evidence that the audience has not heard before



Expert audiences are those that perceive themselves to be well versed in the topic– When presenting to this type of audience:

Offer an array of perspectives and evidence

Admit that the existing knowledge is imperfect and that choices are difficult

Discuss the merits of alternative options and do not move quickly to a single solution

Pay tribute to the audience’s expertise

Elicit their opinions or suggestions


Other Tactical ChoicesOther Tactical Choices

Use Use two-sided argumentstwo-sided arguments with critical/hostile audiences, and with critical/hostile audiences, and one-sided argumentsone-sided arguments with friendly audiences with friendly audiences

Use less Use less dissonancedissonance (at first) with hostile audiences; (at first) with hostile audiences; sympathetic audiences are more open to major changesympathetic audiences are more open to major change

The The climaxclimax of a presentation should come at the beginning of a presentation should come at the beginning or end, rather than in the middleor end, rather than in the middle

Select a Select a presenterpresenter who has credibility with a hostile who has credibility with a hostile audience; consider multiple presenters for different portionsaudience; consider multiple presenters for different portions

Select an appropriate Select an appropriate settingsetting (i.e. intimate or formal) that is (i.e. intimate or formal) that is conducive for the specific audienceconducive for the specific audience

Honor Honor protocolsprotocols and expectations and expectations


Gaining Support for Grant Gaining Support for Grant ProposalsProposals

Grant proposals are agency counterparts Grant proposals are agency counterparts to legislative proposalsto legislative proposals

Grant proposal writers must:Grant proposal writers must:– Write an imaginative title– Give a compelling rationale– Draw on research findings– Set clear objectives– Include an evaluation component


Gaining Support for Grant Gaining Support for Grant ProposalsProposals

Grant proposal writers must (cont.)Grant proposal writers must (cont.)– Demonstrate feasibility– Establish partnerships– Demonstrate support– Develop a realistic budget– Find funders

Education

Chapter 9