Chapter 11 - Marketing Research

Marketing Research 8th Edition Marketing Research 8th Edition Aaker, Kumar, Day Aaker, Kumar, Day

Marketing ResearchMarketing Research

Aaker, Kumar, DayAaker, Kumar, Day

Eighth EditionEighth Edition

Instructor’s Presentation SlidesInstructor’s Presentation Slides

Marketing Research 8th Edition Marketing Research 8th Edition Aaker, Kumar, Day Aaker, Kumar, Day

Chapter ElevenChapter Eleven

Attitude MeasurementAttitude Measurement

Marketing Research 8th Edition Marketing Research 8th Edition Aaker, Kumar, Day Aaker, Kumar, Day ©

Attitude MeasurementAttitude Measurement

Majority of questions in marketing research are Majority of questions in marketing research are designed to measure attitudesdesigned to measure attitudes

Attitudes includeAttitudes include Information possessedInformation possessed

Feelings of like and/or dislikeFeelings of like and/or dislike

Intentions to behaveIntentions to behave

Management wants to understand and influence Management wants to understand and influence behaviorbehavior


Reasons for Measuring AttitudesReasons for Measuring Attitudes

Attitudes lead to behaviorAttitudes lead to behavior

More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to observe and interpret behaviorobserve and interpret behavior

Large capacity for diagnosis and explanationLarge capacity for diagnosis and explanation

Learn which features of a new product concept are Learn which features of a new product concept are acceptable or unacceptableacceptable or unacceptable

Measure the perceived strengths and weaknesses of Measure the perceived strengths and weaknesses of competitive alternativescompetitive alternatives


What Are Attitudes?What Are Attitudes?

Mental states used by individuals to structure Mental states used by individuals to structure the way they perceive their environment and the way they perceive their environment and guide the way they respond to itguide the way they respond to it


Components of AttitudeComponents of Attitude

Cognitive or Knowledge ComponentCognitive or Knowledge Component Represents a person’s information about an objectRepresents a person’s information about an object

Awareness of existence on the objectAwareness of existence on the object

Beliefs about the characteristics or attributes Beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of the objectof the object

Judgments about the relative importance of Judgments about the relative importance of each of the attributeseach of the attributes


Components of Attitude (Cont.)Components of Attitude (Cont.)

Affective or Liking ComponentAffective or Liking Component Summarizes a person’s overall feelings toward an Summarizes a person’s overall feelings toward an

object, situation, or personobject, situation, or person

On a scale of On a scale of like-dislikelike-dislike or or favorable-unfavorablefavorable-unfavorable

When there are several alternatives, liking is When there are several alternatives, liking is expressed in terms of preferenceexpressed in terms of preference

Measured by asking which alternative is “most Measured by asking which alternative is “most preferred” or “first choice,” which is the “second preferred” or “first choice,” which is the “second choice,” and so onchoice,” and so on


Components of Attitude (Cont.)Components of Attitude (Cont.)

Intention or Action ComponentIntention or Action Component Refers to a person’s expectations of future behavior Refers to a person’s expectations of future behavior

toward an objecttoward an object Intentions are usually limited to a distinct time Intentions are usually limited to a distinct time

period that depends on buying habits and planning period that depends on buying habits and planning horizonshorizons

AdvantageAdvantage Incorporates information about a respondent’s Incorporates information about a respondent’s

ability or willingness to pay for the object, or other ability or willingness to pay for the object, or other taken actiontaken action


Measurement and ScalingMeasurement and Scaling

MeasurementMeasurement Standardized process of assigning numbers or other Standardized process of assigning numbers or other

symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interests symbols to certain characteristics of objects of interests according to pre-specified rulesaccording to pre-specified rules

Characteristics for StandardizationCharacteristics for Standardization One-to-one correspondence between the symbol and the One-to-one correspondence between the symbol and the

characteristic in the object that is being measuredcharacteristic in the object that is being measured

Rules for assignment should be invariant over time and Rules for assignment should be invariant over time and the objects being measuredthe objects being measured


Measurement and Scaling (Contd.)Measurement and Scaling (Contd.)

ScalingScaling

Process of creating a continuum on which Process of creating a continuum on which objects are located according to the amount of objects are located according to the amount of the measured characteristic that the object the measured characteristic that the object possessespossesses


Measurement ScalesMeasurement Scales

Nominal ScaleNominal Scale Objects are assigned to mutually exclusive, labeled Objects are assigned to mutually exclusive, labeled

categoriescategories

No necessary relationships among categoriesNo necessary relationships among categories

No ordering or spacing are impliedNo ordering or spacing are implied

Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of each Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of each categorycategory


Measurement Scales (Contd.)Measurement Scales (Contd.)

Ordinal ScaleOrdinal Scale Rank objects or arrange them in order by some common Rank objects or arrange them in order by some common

variablevariable

Does each object have more or less of a variable than Does each object have more or less of a variable than some other object?some other object?

Does not provide information on how much difference Does not provide information on how much difference between objectsbetween objects

Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such as median or modemedian or mode



Interval ScaleInterval Scale Numbers are assigned to objects that represent Numbers are assigned to objects that represent

categories, rank orders, as well as how much the object categories, rank orders, as well as how much the object is preferred on the attribute being measuredis preferred on the attribute being measured

Differences can be comparedDifferences can be compared

Entire range of statistical operations can be employedEntire range of statistical operations can be employed



Ratio ScaleRatio Scale Type of interval scale with meaningful zero point Type of interval scale with meaningful zero point

Possible to say how many times greater or smaller one Possible to say how many times greater or smaller one object is than anotherobject is than another

Magnitude scaling of attitudes has been calibrated Magnitude scaling of attitudes has been calibrated through numeric estimationthrough numeric estimation


Attitude Rating ScalesAttitude Rating Scales

Present a respondent with a continuum of Present a respondent with a continuum of numbered categories that represent the range numbered categories that represent the range of possible attitude adjustmentsof possible attitude adjustments

Single item or multiple item scalesSingle item or multiple item scales


Attitude Scales

Single-Item Scales

Continuous Scales

Multi-Item Scales

Stapel Scales

Thurstone Scales

Likert Scales

Associative Scales

Semantic Differential

ScalePaired

Comparison Scales

Q-sort Scales

Comparative Scales

Itemized Category

Scales

Pictorial Scales

Constant Sum Scales

Rank Order Scales

Classification of Attitude Scales


Single Item ScalesSingle Item Scales

Only have one item to measure a constructOnly have one item to measure a construct Itemized-category scale most widely used by Itemized-category scale most widely used by

marketing researchersmarketing researchers Other single item scales Other single item scales

ComparativeComparative Rank-order Rank-order Q-sortQ-sort PictorialPictorial Constant sumConstant sum


Single Item Scales (Contd.)Single Item Scales (Contd.)

Itemized-category ScalesItemized-category Scales Scales in which the respondent selects from a Scales in which the respondent selects from a

limited number of categorieslimited number of categories

Comparative ScaleComparative Scale A judgment comparing one object, concept, or A judgment comparing one object, concept, or

person against one anotherperson against one another



Rank-order ScalesRank-order Scales

Scale in which the respondent compares one item Scale in which the respondent compares one item with another or a group of items against each with another or a group of items against each other and ranks themother and ranks them

Q-sort ScalingQ-sort Scaling

Respondents sort comparative characteristics into Respondents sort comparative characteristics into normally distributed groupsnormally distributed groups

Ten or more groups increases accuracy of resultsTen or more groups increases accuracy of results


Single Item Scales (Contd.)Single Item Scales (Contd.)Constant-sum scaleConstant-sum scale

Respondents allocate a fixed number of rating points Respondents allocate a fixed number of rating points among serial objects to reflect relative preferenceamong serial objects to reflect relative preference

Pictorial scalesPictorial scales

Various categories of the scale are depicted pictoriallyVarious categories of the scale are depicted pictorially Thermometer ScaleThermometer Scale

Funny faces scaleFunny faces scale

Format must be comprehensible to respond and allow Format must be comprehensible to respond and allow accurate responseaccurate response



Paired-Comparison ScalesPaired-Comparison Scales The brands to be rated are presented two at a time, so each brand The brands to be rated are presented two at a time, so each brand

in the category was compared once to every other brandin the category was compared once to every other brand Brands are rated on a given 10 pts. that are then divided between Brands are rated on a given 10 pts. that are then divided between

the two brandsthe two brands

AdvantagesAdvantages Performs well on the criteriaPerforms well on the criteria

LimitationsLimitations Cumbersome to administerCumbersome to administer Frame of reference is always the other brand being tested; these Frame of reference is always the other brand being tested; these

brands may change over timebrands may change over time


Designing Single Item ScalesDesigning Single Item Scales

Number of Scale CategoriesNumber of Scale Categories

Types of Poles Used in the ScaleTypes of Poles Used in the Scale

Strength of the AnchorsStrength of the Anchors

Labeling of the CategoriesLabeling of the Categories

Balance of a ScaleBalance of a Scale


Multiple-item ScalesMultiple-item Scales

Developed to measure a sample of beliefs Developed to measure a sample of beliefs toward the attitude objects and combine the set toward the attitude objects and combine the set of answers into an average scoreof answers into an average score


Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)

Likert ScaleLikert Scale Requires respondent to indicate degree of Requires respondent to indicate degree of

agreement or disagreement with a variety of agreement or disagreement with a variety of statements related to the attitude objectstatements related to the attitude object

Summated Scale Summated Scale Scores on individual items are summed to give total Scores on individual items are summed to give total

score for respondentsscore for respondents Likert Scale Is Uni-dimensionalLikert Scale Is Uni-dimensional



Thurstone ScalesThurstone Scales Also known as the method of equal-appearing intervals; Also known as the method of equal-appearing intervals;

objective is to obtain a unidimensional scale with objective is to obtain a unidimensional scale with interval propertiesinterval properties

Step 1:Step 1: Generate a large number of statements or adjectives reflecting Generate a large number of statements or adjectives reflecting

all degrees of favorableness toward the attitude of objectsall degrees of favorableness toward the attitude of objects

Step 2:Step 2: A group of judges is given this set of items and asked to A group of judges is given this set of items and asked to

classify them according to their degree of favorableness or classify them according to their degree of favorableness or unfavorableness unfavorableness



Thurstone Scales (Cont.)Thurstone Scales (Cont.)AdvantagesAdvantages

Easy to administerEasy to administer Requires minimum instructionsRequires minimum instructions

LimitationsLimitations Time consumingTime consuming Expensive to constructExpensive to construct Not as much diagnostic value as a Likert scaleNot as much diagnostic value as a Likert scale Values depend on the attitudes of the original judgesValues depend on the attitudes of the original judges



Semantic-differential ScaleSemantic-differential Scale

Respondents rate each attribute object on a Respondents rate each attribute object on a number of five or seven-point rating scales number of five or seven-point rating scales bounded by polar adjectives or phrasesbounded by polar adjectives or phrases

With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral pointpoint


Characteristics of Semantic Characteristics of Semantic DifferentialDifferential

Scales in Semantic Marketing ApplicationsScales in Semantic Marketing Applications:: Pairs of objects or phrases must be meaningful in market Pairs of objects or phrases must be meaningful in market

being studied and often correspond to product/service being studied and often correspond to product/service attributesattributes

Avoid "halo" effect by placing negative pole on either sideAvoid "halo" effect by placing negative pole on either side

Category increments are treated as interval scales so group Category increments are treated as interval scales so group mean values can be computed for each object on each scalemean values can be computed for each object on each scale

May also be analyzed as a summated rating scaleMay also be analyzed as a summated rating scale


Characteristics of Semantic Characteristics of Semantic Differential (Contd.)Differential (Contd.)

Profile AnalysisProfile Analysis Application of semantic differential scaleApplication of semantic differential scale Plot mean ratings of each object on each scale Plot mean ratings of each object on each scale

for visual comparisonfor visual comparison Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp with Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp with

many brands and attributesmany brands and attributes Not all attributes are independentNot all attributes are independent



Stapel ScalesStapel Scales Uses one pole rather than two opposite polesUses one pole rather than two opposite poles Respondents select a numerical response Respondents select a numerical response

categorycategory High positive score reflects good fit between High positive score reflects good fit between

adjective and objectadjective and object Easy to administer and constructEasy to administer and construct No need to assure bipolarityNo need to assure bipolarity



Associative ScalingAssociative Scaling Most effective for markets where respondent is Most effective for markets where respondent is

knowledgeable only about a small subset of a knowledgeable only about a small subset of a large number of choiceslarge number of choices

Appropriate to choice situations that involve a Appropriate to choice situations that involve a sequential decision processsequential decision process

Best suited to market tracking where the Best suited to market tracking where the emphasis is on understanding shifts in relative emphasis is on understanding shifts in relative competitive positionscompetitive positions



Continuous Rating ScalesContinuous Rating Scales

Respondents rate objects by placing a mark at Respondents rate objects by placing a mark at appropriate position on a line running from one appropriate position on a line running from one extreme of the criterion variable to the otherextreme of the criterion variable to the other

Values can be interpreted as interval or ratio Values can be interpreted as interval or ratio scaled datascaled data

It is easy to constructIt is easy to construct

Scoring is cumbersome and unreliableScoring is cumbersome and unreliable


General Guidelines For Developing A General Guidelines For Developing A Multiple-Item ScaleMultiple-Item Scale

Determine clearly what you are going to measure

Generate as many items as possible

Ask experts in the field to evaluate the initial pool of items

Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used


Include some items that will help in the validation of the scale

Evaluate and refine the items

Administer the items to an initial sample

Finally, optimize the scale length


Choosing An Attitudinal ScaleChoosing An Attitudinal ScaleProblems in choosingProblems in choosing

There are many different techniques, each with its own There are many different techniques, each with its own strengths and weaknessesstrengths and weaknesses

Virtually any technique can be adapted to the Virtually any technique can be adapted to the measurement of any one of the attitude componentsmeasurement of any one of the attitude components

Researchers choice shaped by:Researchers choice shaped by: The specific information requiredThe specific information required Adabtability of the scale to the data collection method Adabtability of the scale to the data collection method

and budget constraintsand budget constraints Compatibility of the scale with the structure of the Compatibility of the scale with the structure of the

respondent’s attituderespondent’s attitude


Accuracy of Attitude MeasurementsAccuracy of Attitude Measurements

ValidityValidity An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it is An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it is

supposed to measuresupposed to measure

Face ValidityFace Validity The extent to which the content of a measurement scale The extent to which the content of a measurement scale

appears to tap all relevant facets of the constructappears to tap all relevant facets of the construct

Criterion ValidityCriterion Validity Based on empirical evidence that the attitude measure Based on empirical evidence that the attitude measure

correlates with other “criterion” variablescorrelates with other “criterion” variables


Accuracy of Attitude Measurements Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Cont.)(Cont.)

Concurrent validityConcurrent validity Two variables are measured at the same timeTwo variables are measured at the same time

Predictive validityPredictive validity The attitude measure can predict some future eventThe attitude measure can predict some future event

Convergent validityConvergent validity A form of construct validity that represents the A form of construct validity that represents the

association between the measured construct and association between the measured construct and measures of other constructs with which the measures of other constructs with which the construct is related on theoretical groundsconstruct is related on theoretical grounds


Discriminant validityDiscriminant validity A form of construct validity that represents the extent A form of construct validity that represents the extent

to which the measured construct is not associated to which the measured construct is not associated with which the construct is related on theoretical with which the construct is related on theoretical groundsgrounds

Construct ValidityConstruct Validity A scale evaluation criterion that relates to the A scale evaluation criterion that relates to the

underlying question "what is the nature of the underlying question "what is the nature of the underlying variable or construct measured by the underlying variable or construct measured by the scale?"scale?"

Accuracy of Attitude Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Cont.)Measurements (Cont.)


Accuracy of Attitude Measurements Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Contd.)(Contd.)

ReliabilityReliability The consistency with which the measure produces the The consistency with which the measure produces the

same results with the same or comparable populationsame results with the same or comparable population

SensitivitySensitivity Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able

to discriminate between the respondents who differ to discriminate between the respondents who differ with respect to the construct being measuredwith respect to the construct being measured


Accuracy of Attitude Accuracy of Attitude Measurements (Contd.)Measurements (Contd.)

GeneralizabilityGeneralizability Refers to the ease of scale administration and Refers to the ease of scale administration and

interpretation in different research settings and interpretation in different research settings and situationssituations

RelevancyRelevancy Relevance = reliability * validityRelevance = reliability * validity


Scales in Cross-national ResearchScales in Cross-national Research

Responses Can Be Affected by:Responses Can Be Affected by:

Low literacy and educational levelsLow literacy and educational levels

Culture in a countryCulture in a country

Semantic differential scale is closest to pan Semantic differential scale is closest to pan cultural scalecultural scale

Adapting response formats, particularly their Adapting response formats, particularly their calibration, for specific countries and culturescalibration, for specific countries and cultures

Education

Chapter 11 - Marketing Research