Chapter 1

The Science of PsychologyThe Science of Psychology

Chapter 1Chapter 1

What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

PsychologyPsychology - scientific study of behavior - scientific study of behavior and mental processes.and mental processes.– BehaviorBehavior - outward or overt actions and - outward or overt actions and

reactions.reactions.– Mental processesMental processes - - internal, covert activity internal, covert activity

of our minds.of our minds.

Psychology is a sciencePsychology is a science– Prevent possible biases from leading to Prevent possible biases from leading to

faulty observations faulty observations – Precise and careful measurementPrecise and careful measurement

Psychology’s Four GoalsPsychology’s Four Goals

1.1. DescriptionDescription– What is happening?What is happening?

2.2. ExplanationExplanation• Why is it happening?Why is it happening?• TheoryTheory - general explanation of a set of - general explanation of a set of

observations or factsobservations or facts

3.3. PredictionPrediction• Will it happen again?Will it happen again?

4.4. ControlControl• How can it be changed?How can it be changed?

The goals of psychology are to describe, predict The goals of psychology are to describe, predict and control behavior.and control behavior.

Importance of asking good questions. Importance of asking good questions.

bias can influence the questions we ask bias can influence the questions we ask and the conclusions we draw.and the conclusions we draw.

Faulty SyllogismsFaulty Syllogisms

videovideo

StructuralismStructuralismStructuralismStructuralism - focused on structure or basic - focused on structure or basic elements of the mind.elements of the mind.Wilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratoryWilhelm Wundt’s psychology laboratory– Germany in 1879Germany in 1879– Developed the technique of objective Developed the technique of objective

introspection – process of objectively introspection – process of objectively examining and measuring one’s thoughts examining and measuring one’s thoughts and mental activities.and mental activities.

Edward TitchenerEdward Titchener– Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America.Wundt’s student; brought structuralism to America.

Margaret WashburnMargaret Washburn– Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in Titchener’s student; first woman to earn a Ph.D. in

psychology.psychology.

Structuralism died out in early 1900s.Structuralism died out in early 1900s.

FunctionalismFunctionalism

FunctionalismFunctionalism - how the mind allows - how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.people to adapt, live, work, and play.

Proposed by William James. Proposed by William James.

Influenced the modern fields of:Influenced the modern fields of:– Educational psychologyEducational psychology– Evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology– Industrial/organizational psychologyIndustrial/organizational psychology

Gestalt PsychologyGestalt Psychology

GestaltGestalt – “good figure” psychology. – “good figure” psychology.The “whole” bigger than the sum of The “whole” bigger than the sum of the partsthe partsStarted with Wertheimer, who studied Started with Wertheimer, who studied sensation and perception.sensation and perception.Gestalt ideas are now part of the Gestalt ideas are now part of the study of study of cognitive psychologycognitive psychology, a field , a field focusing not only on perception but focusing not only on perception but also on learning, memory, thought also on learning, memory, thought processes, and problem solving.processes, and problem solving.

PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis

PsychoanalysisPsychoanalysis - the theory and therapy - the theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud.based on the work of Sigmund Freud.

Freud’s patients suffered from nervous Freud’s patients suffered from nervous disorders with no found physical cause.disorders with no found physical cause.– Freud proposed that there is an Freud proposed that there is an unconscious unconscious

(unaware) mind into which we push, or (unaware) mind into which we push, or repressrepress, all , all of our threatening urges and desires.of our threatening urges and desires.

– He believed that these repressed urges, in trying He believed that these repressed urges, in trying to surface, created nervous disorders.to surface, created nervous disorders.

– Freud stressed the importance of early childhood Freud stressed the importance of early childhood experiences.experiences.

BehaviorismBehaviorism

BehaviorismBehaviorism - the science of - the science of behavior that focuses on behavior that focuses on observable behavior only.observable behavior only.– Must be directly seen and Must be directly seen and

measured.measured.

Proposed by John B. Watson.Proposed by John B. Watson.– Based much from work of Ivan Based much from work of Ivan

Pavlov who demonstrated that a Pavlov who demonstrated that a reflex could be conditioned reflex could be conditioned (learned).(learned).

– Watson believed that phobias Watson believed that phobias were learned.were learned.

Case of “Little Albert” – taught to Case of “Little Albert” – taught to fear a white rat.fear a white rat.

Modern PerspectivesModern Perspectives

Psychodynamic Perspective-Psychodynamic Perspective-Motivation is unconsciousMotivation is unconsciousBehavioral perspectiveBehavioral perspective – B. F. – B. F.

Skinner studied operant Skinner studied operant conditioning of voluntary conditioning of voluntary behavior.behavior.– Behaviorism became a major Behaviorism became a major

force in the twentieth century.force in the twentieth century.– Skinner introduced the concept Skinner introduced the concept

of reinforcement to of reinforcement to behaviorism.behaviorism.


Humanistic perspectiveHumanistic perspective– Owes far more to the early roots of Owes far more to the early roots of

psychology in the field of psychology in the field of philosophy.philosophy.

– Humanists held the view that people Humanists held the view that people have have free willfree will, the freedom to , the freedom to choose their own destiny.choose their own destiny.

– Early foundersEarly founders::Abraham Maslow Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Carl Rogers

– Emphasized the human potential, Emphasized the human potential, the ability of each person to become the ability of each person to become the best person he or she could be.the best person he or she could be.

Self-actualizationSelf-actualization - achieving one’s - achieving one’s full potential or actual self.full potential or actual self.


Biopsychological perspectiveBiopsychological perspective - - attributes human and animal attributes human and animal behavior to biological events behavior to biological events occurring in the body, such occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, as genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of hormones, and the activity of the nervous system.the nervous system.

Cognitive perspectiveCognitive perspective - focuses - focuses on memory, intelligence, on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, perception, problem solving, and learning.and learning.

Seven Modern PerspectivesSeven Modern Perspectives

Sociocultural perspectiveSociocultural perspective - - focuses on the relationship focuses on the relationship between social behavior and between social behavior and culture.culture.

Evolutionary perspectiveEvolutionary perspective - - focuses on the biological bases focuses on the biological bases of universal mental of universal mental characteristics that all humans characteristics that all humans share.share.– Looks at the way the mind works and why it Looks at the way the mind works and why it

works as it does. works as it does. – Behavior is seen as having an adaptive or Behavior is seen as having an adaptive or

survival value.survival value.

Types of Psychological ProfessionalsTypes of Psychological Professionals

PsychiatristPsychiatrist - a medical doctor who has specialized in - a medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders.PsychoanalystPsychoanalyst - either a psychiatrist or a psychologist - either a psychiatrist or a psychologist who has special training in the theories of Sigmund who has special training in the theories of Sigmund Freud and his method of psychoanalysis.Freud and his method of psychoanalysis.Psychiatric social workerPsychiatric social worker - a social worker with some - a social worker with some training in therapy methods who focuses on the training in therapy methods who focuses on the environmental conditions that can have an impact on environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, mental disorders, such as poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse.and drug abuse.PsychologistPsychologist - a professional with an academic degree - a professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more areas of and specialized training in one or more areas of psychology.psychology.– Can do counseling, teaching, and research and may Can do counseling, teaching, and research and may

specialize in any one of a large number of areas specialize in any one of a large number of areas within psychology.within psychology.

– Areas of specialization in psychology include Areas of specialization in psychology include clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and clinical, counseling, developmental, social, and personality, among others.personality, among others.

Menu

LO 1.6 Psychiatrist,

psychologist, and other professionals

Psychology and the Scientific MethodPsychology and the Scientific MethodScientific methodScientific method - system of gathering data - system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are so that bias and error in measurement are reduced.reduced.Steps in the Scientific Method:Steps in the Scientific Method:

1.1. Perceive the question.Perceive the question.2.2. Form a Form a hypothesishypothesis – tentative explanation of a – tentative explanation of a

phenomenon based on observations.phenomenon based on observations.3.3. Test the hypothesis.Test the hypothesis.4.4. Draw conclusions.Draw conclusions.5.5. Report your results so that others can try to Report your results so that others can try to replicatereplicate - -

repeat the study or experiment to see if the same repeat the study or experiment to see if the same results will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate results will be obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results.reliability of results.

LO 1.7 Psychology is a science; steps in scientific method

The Scientific Method

Descriptive MethodsDescriptive Methods

Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation – watching animals or – watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment.humans behave in their normal environment.Major Advantage:Major Advantage:– Realistic picture of behavior.Realistic picture of behavior.

Disadvantages:Disadvantages:– Observer effectObserver effect - tendency of people or animals to - tendency of people or animals to

behave differently from normal when they know they behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed.are being observed.

Participant observationParticipant observation - a naturalistic observation in - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect).being observed (to reduce observer effect).

– Observer biasObserver bias - tendency of observers to see what - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see.they expect to see.

Blind observersBlind observers – people who do not know what the – people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias).research question is (to reduce observer bias).

– Each naturalistic setting is unique and observations Each naturalistic setting is unique and observations may not hold.may not hold.

Descriptive MethodsDescriptive MethodsLaboratory observationLaboratory observation – watching animals – watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting.or humans behave in a laboratory setting.Advantages:Advantages:– Control over environment.Control over environment.– Allows use of specialized equipment.Allows use of specialized equipment.

Disadvantage:Disadvantage:– Artificial situation that may result in artificial Artificial situation that may result in artificial

behavior.behavior.

Descriptive methods lead to the formation Descriptive methods lead to the formation of testable hypotheses.of testable hypotheses.

LO 1.8 Naturalistic and laboratory settings


Case studyCase study - study of one individual in - study of one individual in great detail.great detail.– Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.Advantage: tremendous amount of detail.– Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.Disadvantage: cannot apply to others.– Famous case study: Phineas Gage.Famous case study: Phineas Gage.


SurveysSurveys – researchers will ask a series of questions – researchers will ask a series of questions about the topic under study.about the topic under study.Given to a Given to a representative samplerepresentative sample - randomly selected - randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of sample of subjects from a larger population of subjects.subjects.

PopulationPopulation - the entire group of people or animals in which the - the entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested.researcher is interested.

AdvantagesAdvantages::– Data from large numbers of people.Data from large numbers of people.– Study covert behaviors.Study covert behaviors.

DisadvantagesDisadvantages::– Have to ensure representative sample (or results not Have to ensure representative sample (or results not

meaningful).meaningful).– People are not always accurate (courtesy bias).People are not always accurate (courtesy bias).

Random Sampling from PopulationRandom Sampling from Population

POPULATION

SAMPLE

INFERENCE

LO 1.9 Case studies and surveys

Finding RelationshipsFinding Relationships

CorrelationCorrelation - a measure of the relationship - a measure of the relationship between two variables.between two variables.– VariableVariable - anything that can change or vary. - anything that can change or vary.– Measures of two variables go into a mathematical Measures of two variables go into a mathematical

formula and produce a formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r)correlation coefficient (r)– which represents two things: which represents two things:

direction of the relationship.direction of the relationship.

strength of the relationship.strength of the relationship.

– Knowing the value of one variable allows Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other researchers to predict the value of the other variable.variable.

Finding RelationshipsFinding Relationships

Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00.Correlation coefficient ranges from –1.00 to +1.00.Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship Closer to 1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship between the variables.between the variables.– No correlation = 0.0.No correlation = 0.0.– Perfect correlation = -1.00 Perfect correlation = -1.00 OROR +1.00. +1.00.

Positive Positive correlation – variables are related in the correlation – variables are related in the samesame direction.direction.– As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the

other decreases.other decreases.

NegativeNegative correlation – variables are related in correlation – variables are related in oppositeopposite direction.direction.– As one increases, the other decreases.As one increases, the other decreases.

CORRELATION DOES CORRELATION DOES NOTNOT PROVE CAUSATION!!! PROVE CAUSATION!!!

LO 1.10 Correlational technique

The ExperimentThe ExperimentExperimentExperiment - a deliberate manipulation of a - a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing the determination of behavior result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships.cause-and-effect relationships.

Operational definitionOperational definition - definition of a variable of - definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured.interest that allows it to be directly measured.

Independent variable (IV)Independent variable (IV) - variable in an - variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.experimenter.

Dependent variable (DV)Dependent variable (DV) - variable in an - variable in an experiment that represents the measurable experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment.experiment.

IV: Violent TV

Definition: Aggressive play

DV: Aggressive play

The ExperimentThe ExperimentExperimental groupExperimental group - subjects in an experiment - subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable.who are subjected to the independent variable.

Control groupControl group - subjects in an experiment who - subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable are not subjected to the independent variable and who may receive a placebo treatment and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for (controls for confoundingconfounding variables). variables).

Random assignmentRandom assignment - process of assigning - process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups subjects to the experimental or control groups randomly, so that each subject has an equal randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group.chance of being in either group.– Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering) Controls for confounding (extraneous, interfering)

variables.variables.

Exp Group: Watch TV

Control Group: No TV

Random AssignmentRandom Assignment

SAMPLE

Control Group

Experimental Group

Test for Differences

LO 1.11 Experimental approach and terms

The ExperimentThe Experiment

Placebo effectPlacebo effect - the phenomenon in which the - the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior.influence their behavior.– Single-blind studySingle-blind study- subjects do not know if they are in the - subjects do not know if they are in the

experimental or the control group (reduces placebo effect).experimental or the control group (reduces placebo effect).

Experimenter effectExperimenter effect - tendency of the experimenter’s - tendency of the experimenter’s expectations for a study to unintentionally influence expectations for a study to unintentionally influence the results of the study.the results of the study.– Double-blind studyDouble-blind study - neither the experimenter nor the subjects - neither the experimenter nor the subjects

knows if the subjects are in the experimental or control group knows if the subjects are in the experimental or control group (reduces placebo effect (reduces placebo effect andand experimenter effect). experimenter effect).

Quasiexperimental designsQuasiexperimental designs - - not considered true not considered true experiments because of the inability to randomly experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental and control assign participants to the experimental and control groups (for example, if age is the variable of interest).groups (for example, if age is the variable of interest).

Example of a Real ExperimentExample of a Real Experiment

HypothesisHypothesis: extrinsic (external) reward would reduce : extrinsic (external) reward would reduce creativity.creativity.Independent variableIndependent variable – two different sets of – two different sets of instructions.instructions.Dependent variableDependent variable – creativity on art project as – creativity on art project as judged by raters blind to the group assignment.judged by raters blind to the group assignment.Experimental groupExperimental group – instructed to make project to – instructed to make project to compete for an award (prizes).compete for an award (prizes).Control groupControl group – instructed to make project for fun; – instructed to make project for fun; prizes would be raffled off.prizes would be raffled off.Results supported hypothesis: those competing for Results supported hypothesis: those competing for extrinsic reward were less creative.extrinsic reward were less creative.

Ethics in Psychological ResearchEthics in Psychological Research

Ethics committeesEthics committees - groups of psychologists or other - groups of psychologists or other professionals who look over each proposed research professionals who look over each proposed research study and judge it according to its safety and study and judge it according to its safety and consideration for the participants in the study.consideration for the participants in the study.Common ethical guidelinesCommon ethical guidelines::1.1. Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed Rights and well-being of participants must be weighed

against the study’s value to science.against the study’s value to science.2.2. Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision

about participation.about participation.3.3. Deception must be justified. Deception must be justified. 4.4. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time. 5.5. Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of

risks. risks. 6.6. Investigator must debrief participants, telling the true nature Investigator must debrief participants, telling the true nature

of the study and expectations of results.of the study and expectations of results.7.7. Data must remain confidential. Data must remain confidential.

Ethics in Psychological ResearchEthics in Psychological Research

Animal research – answers questions we Animal research – answers questions we could never do with human research.could never do with human research.Focus is on avoiding exposing them to Focus is on avoiding exposing them to unnecessaryunnecessary pain or suffering. pain or suffering.Animals are used in approximately 7% of Animals are used in approximately 7% of psychological studies.psychological studies.

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Critical thinkingCritical thinking - making reasoned - making reasoned judgments about claims.judgments about claims.

Four Basic CriteriaFour Basic Criteria::1.1. There are very few “truths” that do not need to There are very few “truths” that do not need to

be subjected to testing.be subjected to testing.

2.2. All evidence is not equal in quality.All evidence is not equal in quality.

3.3. Just because someone is considered to be an Just because someone is considered to be an authority or to have a lot of expertise does not authority or to have a lot of expertise does not make everything that person claims make everything that person claims automatically true.automatically true.

4.4. Critical thinking requires an open mind.Critical thinking requires an open mind.

PseudopsychologiesPseudopsychologies

PseudopsychologiesPseudopsychologies - - systems of systems of explaining human behavior that are explaining human behavior that are not based on or consistent with not based on or consistent with scientific evidence.scientific evidence.

– PhrenologyPhrenology – reading bumps on the – reading bumps on the skull.skull.

– PalmistryPalmistry – reading palms. – reading palms.

– GraphologyGraphology – analysis of personality – analysis of personality through handwriting.through handwriting.

to understand events in the world we turn to to understand events in the world we turn to folk folk wisdomwisdom. .

Such efforts to explain events are presented in Such efforts to explain events are presented in ways that can never be proved wrong. (fallacies)ways that can never be proved wrong. (fallacies)

Hence folk wisdom provides answers for all Hence folk wisdom provides answers for all situations but explains none.situations but explains none.

the law of parsimonythe law of parsimony

When there are two (or more) competing When there are two (or more) competing explanations for an event or claim, we usually explanations for an event or claim, we usually select the one requiring the fewest assumptions.select the one requiring the fewest assumptions.

Critical Thinking ApplicationCritical Thinking Application

Critical thinking applied to astrology Critical thinking applied to astrology (a pseudopsychology):(a pseudopsychology):• Are astrologer’s charts up-to-date? Are astrologer’s charts up-to-date? • What exactly is so important about the What exactly is so important about the

moment of birth? moment of birth? • Why would the stars and planets have any Why would the stars and planets have any

effect on a person? effect on a person? • Is it gravity? Is it gravity?

Determining whether claims are based on Determining whether claims are based on scientific observations scientific observations How could the existence of UFOs be explained How could the existence of UFOs be explained scientificallyscientifically

1.1. Be skepticalBe skeptical2.2. Examine definitions of termsExamine definitions of terms3.3. Examine the assumptions or premises of Examine the assumptions or premises of

argumentsarguments4.4. Be cautious in drawing conclusions from Be cautious in drawing conclusions from

evidenceevidence5.5. Consider alternative interpretations of research Consider alternative interpretations of research

evidenceevidence6.6. Do not oversimplifyDo not oversimplify7.7. Do not over-generalizeDo not over-generalize8.8. Apply critical thinking to all areas of lifeApply critical thinking to all areas of life