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Document 1 of 1 Changing lives: Teaching English and literature to ESL students Author: Ernst-Slavit, Gisela; Moore, Monica; Maloney, Carol ProQuest document link Abstract: Ernst-Slavit et al provide teachers with selected background knowledge and strategies that enhancethe learning process for English as a Second Language (ESL) students in secondary classrooms. With thechanging U.S. demographic picture and its impact in schools as a backdrop, key principles in the field of ESLand a brief description of various program models for second-language learning are presented. Also discussedare the stages of language development and cultural adaptation that all second-language learners navigatethrough. Important linguistic and cultural processes are outlined and effective activities are suggested forstudents in various stages within those processes. Full text: Headnote To enhance learning for ESL students the authors provide selected background knowledge and strategies. When I was taked Literature I start to read different books for the class, but I first think that I really don't needread that kind book but I remember that when I finished the book, was really interesting so I start to read bymyself... This changed a lot my life, because now I love read book of any subject, I don't care if the book is of History orthe kind of story or is a novel or a science fiction book I just read and enjoy the books, but I can't read scarybooks, because I afraid to this kind of story. Ana Having students who are already familiar with the joy of reading and the importance of books is a paradiseawaited by many teachers. Yet, having a student like Ana for whom reading and books started out as a meansto an end, but ended up as a joy, is one of the things teachers appreciate most, for it means that the studenthas learned the power and agency that the world of literature can bring (see Christensen, 2000). Joyous asAna's discovery is, the path there is not an easy one. Helping students like Ana who struggle with basic literacyskills in their second language may at first appear to be a tremendous challenge for teachers who already facea myriad of other responsibilities. How do we help Ana learn about such complexities as parallelism? How canshe begin to understand 16th-century English when she is confused by 21 st-century English? How can she seethe subtle differences and nuances between guilt and compassion during a discussion of Toni Morrison's (2000)The Bluest Eye? The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with selected background knowledge and strategies thatenhance the learning process for English as a Second Language (ESL) students in secondary classrooms. Withthe changing U.S. demographic picture and its impact in schools as a backdrop, key principles in the field ofESL and a brief description of various program models for second-language learning are presented. Alsodiscussed are the stages of language development and cultural adaptation that all second-language learnersnavigate through. Important linguistic and cultural processes are outlined and effective activities are suggestedfor students in various stages within those processes. Who are our second-language learners? According to a 1990 census, there were 42,791,000 students enrolled in elementary and secondary schools inthe U.S. During the 1991-1992 school year, approximately 6% of those students were language minoritystudents, that is, students who are in the process of learning English as a Second Language. Furthermore,according to data from the 1993-1994 Schools and Staffing Survey, available on the National Center forEducation Statistics website (http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/ display. asp?id=96), "forty-two percent of all public school

teachers [had] at least one LEP student in their classes." Finally, census 2000 data indicated that the total number of foreign-born children enrolled in elementary (notincluding kindergarten) and secondary schools in the United States was 2.6 million. That number increases toover 12 million when we include children who were born in the United States to foreign-born parents. Althoughnot all students from these figures would be ESL students, a significant portion of them are likely to be. Thesefigures also suggest the imminent reality that all teachers, at some point during their careers, will have in theirclassrooms at least one student for whom English is a second language. The recorded numbers of ESL students at the secondary level can be quite misleading. In a report entitled"Characteristics of SecondarySchool-Age Language Minority and Limited English Proficient Youth" (Strang,Winglee, &Stunkard, 1993), the data reflects a phenomenon known as the Basic Interpersonal CommunicationSkills/Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency Skills threshold (Cummins, 1989). The basic point to thistheory is that second-language learners are capable of obtaining the everyday language used in conversationwithin a relatively quick period of time-around two years. However, the acquisition of the academic languageand literacy needed for high school coursework takes anywhere from 5 to 11 years depending upon whichresearch you base your numbers. The large span in years that it takes to develop academic language primarilyreflects the varying degrees of academic preparation and literacy skills students bring with them to secondaryschool in their new country. Ironically, qualifying for many states' ESL programs means that students score at the 35th percentile or belowon language proficiency scales, roughly equivalent to the two-year level of everyday English. Thus, oncestudents are situated to begin acquiring academic English, they are often no longer eligible for language supportprograms. This occurs even when students themselves report that their English is not up to par. According toStrang et al. (1993), when teachers' opinions of students' language proficiency were the only consideration, thenumber of 10th-grade ESL students was determined to be 97,000. Alternatively, when students' opinions oftheir own language proficiency were the only consideration, the number of 10th-grade ESL students was256,000. These numbers point out an interesting difference in the perception of language proficiency betweenteachers and students. Could it be that the students are trying to tell us something? ESL students may be very different from other learners in their background, skills, and past experiences. Somemay come to the U.S. having attended school regularly, and they will bring with them literacy skills and contentknowledge, although in another language. It is likely that these students will have an easier transition into anacademic setting than students who may come from a war-torn country or from a natural disaster area whereschooling was not always available or accessible. Many will belong to low-income families even though some oftheir parents may have been highly educated in their own country and may have once held professionalpositions. The resources and the needs individual students bring are therefore likely to be very different. It isimperative that we find out who our students are and where they come from before we can begin to appreciatethe resources they bring and to understand their needs. In spite of the differences among ESL students, they all have similar needs. In addition to building their oralEnglish skills, they also need to acquire reading and writing skills in English, while continuing their learning inthe content areas. Some ESL students will have other needs that make the task of learning much more difficult.For example, students whose first language is Persian, Chinese, or Arabic are not always familiar with the Latinalphabet. Their writing system may be completely different (e.g., ideographic, pictographic, logographic); thelanguage may be written from right to left and top to bottom; letters may be written to extend both above andbelow the line; or letters may not be joined and punctuation not always precise. For many of these ESLstudents, the transition to the Latin alphabet is an additional source of confusion. Principles that make for good practice This section outlines selected theoretical principles that address some of the complexities of second-languagelearning and the needs of second-language learners. These principles are based on the work of educators and

researchers in the areas of language and literacy learning, second language acquisition, and the anthropologyof education (see, for example, Au &Jordan, 1981; Cazden, 1986; Ernst, 1994b; Ernst, Castle, &Frostad, 1992;Freire, 2000; Goodman, 1982; Heath, 1983; Philips, 1983; Wells, 1986). These principles represent aconstellation of theoretical and pedagogical perspectives that guide the practice of caring, knowledgeable,effective educators working in successful programs for ESL students. They should be helpful to educatorsinterested in understanding the trajectory ESL students follow in their efforts to learn English. The student's first language plays an essential role in the acquisition of a second language. Evidence of theinfluence of native-language development on academic achievement in a second language derives fromprogram evaluation studies of the 1980s and early 1990s. These studies have demonstrated that the more thenative language is academically supported, in combination with balanced second-language development, themore ESL students are able to academically achieve in the second language (Ernst-Slavit, 1998; Krashen&Biber, 1988; Ramirez, Yuen, &Ramey, 1991). Educational programs need to include what students bring with them. Educators need to focus on what studentshave rather than on what they lack. Teaching and learning can be extended and enhanced when participants'own experiences (vis-a-vis their language and culture) are mixed with those generalizations andconceptualizations offered in schools. Such acknowledgment often stimulates learning and helps studentsconstruct meanings by connecting what they already know and what the new environment offers them (Ernst,1993). Learning a second language is a long and difficult process. It's a big task for anyone. After all, learning a firstlanguage is a process that involves much of a young child's day, and ESL students must work even harder toacquire a second language. It can be emotionally difficult for children and adults to take the step into a newlanguage and culture. Adolescents, perhaps even more than adults, can be shy and embarrassed aroundothers when trying out beginning language skills. Fluency in the hallway does not necessarily mean proficiency in the classroom. Often we hear our ESL studentsconversing easily in English in the hallway with other students. This, however, does not mean that students arefluent in English. It is important to mention that good conversational skills do not necessarily mean equivalentliteracy skills. The work of Collier and Thomas (1989), Cummins (1989), and others, has clearly demonstratedthe different levels of language proficiency needed depending on the context. In essence, this body of worksuggests that proficiency in everyday language can be achieved in one to two years; however, proficiency in thelanguage needed to succeed in content-area classes (e.g., literature, mathematics, chemistry) can take five toseven years or more, especially when academic reading and writing is included in the consideration ofproficiency. Learners acquire a second language in different ways. There are many similarities in how a second language islearned, but there are also differences based on individual student characteristics and language background.For example, outgoing students may begin to imitate phrases and expressions very early and try them withoutworrying about making mistakes. Conversely, other learners may not use their new language for some time.Instead, they observe quietly until they are sure of what they should say. It may be difficult for teachers toremember that the outgoing student may be less proficient than he or she appears, and the quiet student mayactually be much more proficient than he or she seems. Both will eventually learn to speak fluently. Errors can indicate progress. As with firstlanguage acquisition, errors can actually have a positive outcome.Many language errors are developmental and will eventually be replaced by appropriate forms without teacherintervention. For students in the early stages of language acquisition, errors that impede communication may becorrected in a sensitive and natural way, especially those involving vocabulary. Direct correction of errors, onthe other hand, can hinder students' efforts and discourage further attempts to use the newly acquiredlanguage. Rather than direct correction, a better strategy that does not hinder communication is to model thecorrect form.

Language develops best in a variety of settings that promote talk and interaction. Talk and interaction not onlyhelp students understand new concepts but also provide a scaffold for learning through the other languagemodes of reading and writing. Through talking and listening to one another (not only to the teacher) and workingon activities involving reading and writing (not only their own), learners are able both to develop increasingfacility in all language modes and increasing control over social interaction, thinking, and learning (Ernst,1994a). Literacy is part of language; thus, reading and writing develop alongside speaking and listening. According to Goodman (1982), the two most important resources that language learners have are theircompetence in oral language and their undiminished ability to learn language as it is needed for new functions.The role of literacy instruction in school is to teach learners to use these resources. Research indicates thatESL students benefit from working in classrooms where speaking and listening are regarded as integral to theprocess of negotiating knowledge, exchanging personal experiences and thoughts, and the development oflanguage and literacy abilities. Schools should demonstrate appreciation and respect for cultural diversity. Providing equal opportunities for allstudents depends on the degree to which classroom teachers are able to institute classroom practices anddevelop curriculum that responds to the diversity represented in their classrooms. Implementation of thesepractices is dependent upon supportive school staff and programs, district guidelines, and state languagepolicies that recognize diversity as an asset and not a handicap. Program models for secondlanguage education in the United States Often ESL students are placed in some kind of bilingual or ESL program-if available in the school or district-before being assigned to mainstream classrooms. Although there are a myriad of programs and approachesdesigned for ESL students, most of these programs fall into two major categories: bilingual and ESL. Bilingualprograms are those where instruction is provided in two languages (e.g., Chinese and English); ESL programsoffer instruction in English only but are tailored to the needs and abilities of ESL students. Table 1 presents anoverview of the major variations in program types for limited-English proficient students in the United States. Stages of language development and cultural adaptation Students acquiring a second language are involved in a predictable pattern of both linguistic and culturalprocesses. The ability to determine the stage the student is passing through and what strategies are effective ina given stage can provide both teacher and student with a means of communicating effectively at any point inthe language-acquisition process. It is important to underscore that the duration of each stage will varyaccording to the student's age, language background, proficiency in the first language, individual personality,and motivational factors, among other considerations. This means that some students might be able to gothrough all four stages within one year, while others might need as much as two years before reaching the thirdstage.

Stage I-Preproduction Linguistic considerations. In the first stage of learning a second language, students listen and watch otherscarefully and often communicate with gestures, actions, and some verbal formulas (e.g., "no, thank you"). Asdepicted in Table 2, effective activities include face-to-face conversations; lessons that focus on buildingreceptive vocabulary and recycled vocabulary (i.e., key words in a lesson or unit that are visited more thanonce); activities that focus on listening comprehension (e.g., using a tape player to hear a target piece ofliterature, lectures where a target piece of literature is broken down into short passages, guided yes or noanswer activities following a brief lecture); as well as the use of visuals and manipulative or real objects.Manipulatives and visuals might include, for example, using pictures from Never Say Macbeth (Front, 1990) tocontrast London's Globe Theatre with modern versions, or showing clips from films about Shakespeare such asShakespeare in Love (Zwick, Madden, Norman, &Stoppard, 1998). Likewise, using Dorothea Lange's photos of the 1930s while the class is reading The Grapes of Wrath(Steinbeck, 1939) can help students understand and intuit what life might have been like in the U.S. during theGreat Depression. Teacherdirected questioning techniques that are understandable for students are alsopresented in Table 2. The visual techniques listed previously can make a subject matter accessible to studentswho may not yet understand the original texts. Cultural considerations. The stages of cultural adaptation, like those of language acquisition, follow predictablepatterns. However, individual factors (e.g., personality, motivation, reasons for leaving the homeland,socioeconomic status, language, and cultural backgrounds) can greatly influence a student's response to thestages. While often misinterpreted by teachers as an unwillingness to participate, the silent period (Krashen, 1992)plays a crucial role in language acquisition and cultural adaptation. During this silent time, a tremendous amountof cognitive activity is taking place within the student. The second-language learner is beginning to build the

parameters of how their new school system works. What are the acceptable behaviors exhibited by the nativeEnglish speaking students? How do they sit, stand, and talk to the teacher or one another? Questions such asthese draw tremendous amounts of attention away from the task at hand, which often happens to be theongoing lesson. During the silent period, students' participation in class is limited because most of their energyis spent absorbing the information they see and hear. Typically, student behavior at this point includes minimaloral or written production, distractibility, and confusion. Providing a stress-free environment with continued support and encouragement, where students are able topass and not respond, is a requirement at this stage. For ESL students, it is very comforting to trust that theteacher will not single them out by turning the spotlight on them and requiring a response when they are notable to give one. By reducing student anxiety in the classroom, teachers can lead students to the next stage oflanguage development and cultural adaptation. Stage II-Early production Linguistic considerations. During the early production stage, students are in the process of assimilating basicvocabulary and intuitively understanding that English, like any other language, is a system derived of rules,patterns, and sound-symbol relationships. Students will begin to speak using one or two words. In some cases,short utterances as well as chunks of social language are also produced. One of us had a student who oftenresponded to inquiries with a hearty "no problem!" The truth was that he really did not understand the task athand; what he did know, however, was how to produce a socially accepted response that would stop theteacher from asking more questions. While taking risks with a new language, it is important for teachers tomonitor their students' error correction with great sensitivity. Modeling the correct response without calling attention to the error allows students to hear the information againwhile they formulate a correct response of their own. Because the degree of proficiency in the students' native language, especially in terms of literacy and academiccompetency, greatly determines how well and when students will decode the second-language system, itbehooves teachers to find out about students' literacy levels and education in their first language. There aremany ways to do this. Perhaps the best place to begin is with your building or district ESL professional. Oftenthe determination of English language proficiency also gives some clues about the student's academicachievement. Even though these clues are rough estimates, they are better than nothing. Data about studentsEnglish proficiency should be a part of their ESL, if not general, school file. Students who arrive with little or noformal schooling or low literacy levels have very little upon which to build this new system of language; thosewith strong academic backgrounds will be better equipped to make the connections needed to move aheadacademically. During the early production stage, several strategies have proven useful. Anticipation guides used beforereading the target literature allow students to identify and think through their positions in relation to complexabstract concepts such as truth, war, honor, love, or responsibility (for an excellent description of anticipationguides, see Vacca &Vacca, 1999, pp. 372-377). Providing learners with a list of key terms for pre. viewing andample opportunities to use the new vocabulary more than once will increase students participation. Audiotapedrecordings of the assigned readings for previewing and of the lecture or class activity for review are also useful.As always, clusters, semantic webs, Venn diagrams, T-graphs, and graphic organizers are good tools for allstudents but especially for second-language learners (see Collie &Slater, 1987; Johnson &Louis, 1987; Sasser,1992; Scarcella, 1990). In the early production stage, students are able to grasp and offer responses to yes/noand either/or questions and make short responses to general questions about key vocabulary. Cultural considerations. At this point students' frustrations with the language and culture come to a peak. Afterobservation during the silent period, students begin to try out new behaviors and make their first tentative stepscommunicating with the new language. This is where they find difficulty trying to be a part of their surroundings.This frustration is known as adaptation fatigue.

As defined by Khols (1984), adaptation fatigue is the general unwillingness to interact due to the constantemotional and cognitive drain of interpreting both linguistic and cultural signals and then respondingaccordingly. In the public school environment, ESL students spend an average of six hours a day absorbing amassive amount of information to which they essentially have no way to respond. During this stage of earlyproduction, they summon huge amounts of emotional energy to make their first forays into becoming aparticipant in this new environment. Whether ESL students' risk taking results in a positive encounter or, sadly,an embarrassing one, they are often exhausted from the effort. Observable behaviors in the classroom includedaydreaming, boredom, and an inability to cope with seemingly insignificant issues (see, for example,Townsend &Fu, 2001, for a description of the potentially debilitating effects of this inability to cope). A goodstrategy for teachers during this time is to suspend judgment and continue to provide ample and safeopportunities to facilitate students' experimentation with the new language. Stage III-Speech emergence Linguistic considerations. In this stage, students' linguistic capabilities have increased in ways that allow forsuccessful participation in small-group activities. Students are also able to demonstrate comprehension and uselanguage purposefully (e.g., to clarify, request, refuse, interrupt, apologize). Lessons that focus on key conceptsrather than just key terms are accessible to students (e.g., discussing the concepts of ambition, betrayal, andidealism while reading Shakespeare's [ 1980] Julius Caesar). Zigo (2001) argued that the narrative mode ofthinking is an excellent medium through which to introduce such otherwise abstract concepts. It stands toreason, then, that literature is one of the best ways to establish a common experience amongst students fromwhich discussions involving abstract concepts can be built. Students can be encouraged to tell their own storiesthat relate to the text being read. The students, through their own experiences and voice, make personalconnections to the concepts and find it easier to describe and talk about them. Similarly, teachers can introduce expanded vocabulary and ask open-ended questions that stimulate languageproduction. Strategies that are especially helpful for assessment purposes include activities that provide forfrequent comprehension checks (e.g., as you discuss Cisneros's The House on Mango Street [ 1989], ratherthan asking "Do you understand?" you might ask specific questions such as, "How did Esperanza Cordero feelin her neighborhood?"). Effective questioning techniques at this stage include open-ended questions such as,"How is it that _," "Tell me about ," "Talk about _," "Describe -," "and "How would you change this part ?"Performancebased assessment can be particularly useful at the speech emergence stage. Cultural considerations. From the ESL student's perspective there is a great sense of relief during this stage ofcultural adjustment. The orientation and subsequent interpretation of linguistic and subtle cultural clues hasbeen intense and learners now have a knowledge base from which to build. The feelings of isolation begin tofade and students begin to recover from the frustration found in the earlier stages. While they are still undergreat pressure, students have gained control over their lives and can participate in the school environment. Atthis point, the dilemma faced by students regarding whether to assimilate (i.e., toss away their own culturalidentities and follow the examples of the native English-speaking students in order to be like them) or toacculturate (i.e., meeting the new culture with a mix of their own, thereby retaining their identity but still beingable to participate in the mainstream) emerges. The difference between assimilation and acculturation is animportant one since it has been hypothesized that successful language learning is more likely when learnersacculturate (Ellis, 1986). In essence, then, when students are able to add a new language and culture ratherthan replace the old with the new, the learning process is enhanced, both in terms of language and in terms ofcontent. Students' acculturation can be facilitated greatly by the teacher and the classroom environment. Activities thatpermit students to extrapolate from the complex ideas represented in literary masterpieces, for example, to theirown emerging bicultural selves validate students' identity-inmotion. This is of course true for all students in ourclassrooms. The teacher's own awareness of this general adolescent need to invent and reinvent themselves

can be expressed through a classroom environment that encourages students to explore their own identitieswithin the context of the greater social and psychological themes that are expressed in the world's great stories. Stage IV-Intermediate fluency Linguistic considerations. Intermediate fluency is characterized by students' abilities to engage in conversationand produce connective narratives. Often students view reading and writing activities as a way to acquire andprocess new information. This is an excellent place to add some direct instruction regarding basic study skillssuch as notetaking techniques, skimming text for specific information, scanning text for main ideas, recognizingspecific attributes within a particular literary genre, and using those attributes to produce one's ownrepresentation of that genre, to name a few. In the classroom, understanding content is evidenced by student participation in activities that require higherlevels of language use (Maloney, 2001). The level of student response to teacher questions developsconsiderably during this stage, as is demonstrated by their ability to answer the following types of questions:"What would you recommend or suggest?'; "How do you think this story will end?'" "What is the story about?","What is your opinion on this matter?", "How are these the same or different?", and "Which do you prefer?" Theanswers to these and similar questions could be organized with semantic maps or outlines that could, in turn,form the basis for essay writing given the students' greater ability to produce written narratives and connecteddiscourse at this stage of language development. Cultural considerations. The fourth stage finds the student functioning well in school, and as teachers we needto celebrate our ESL students who have arrived at this point. It has been an arduous journey and we must notlose sight of the efforts they have made. Having successfully learned a new language and navigated through anocean of cultural contexts and dues, they are now able to ask for assistance, share insights, and stage opinions.More important, on a social level they have made friends and are able to critically examine information,creatively suggest solutions, and consistently hypothesize possible avenues to follow. Resources Your school ESL specialist is a wonderful source of knowledge and information about what to do and whatmaterials to use with your ESL students. Your librarian can suggest appropriate literature in English andperhaps in the native languages of your students. Other resources available to teachers and schools arepresented below. This selection, far from comprehensive, provides an array of information for educators workingwith students from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education (NCBE), in Washington, D.C. can provide information aboutfree or low-cost assistance with implementation, training, evaluation, and parental involvement in bilingualeducation and ESL programs as well as legal requirements for bilingual education and ESL programs in variouscommunities. 1-800321-NCBE. http://www.ncbe.ewu.edu. Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) in Alexandria, VA. Individual andinstitutional TESOL members may participate in the activities and receive the newsletter of the BilingualEducation Interest Section. 1-703-836-0774. http://www.tesol.edu/. The National Association for Bilingual Education (NABE) in Washington, D.C. 1-202-898-1829.http://www.nabe.org/. The U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR), in Washington, D.C. Contact the OCR for theirlatest policy statements on the legal responsibilities of educational agencies serving language minority students,and call NCBE for the locations and phone numbers of the 10 Desegregation Assistance Centers (DACs). The Office of English Language Acquisition (formerly called the Office of Bilingual Education and MinorityLanguages Affairs, OBEMLA), Washington, D.C., has 16 federally funded resource centers (MRCs). Call NCBEfor appropriate names and phone numbers. State education agencies. Call your state's Department of Education or NCBE for appropriate names and phone

numbers. ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics leads to sources on English as a second or foreignlanguage, bilingualism and bilingual education, and intercultural communication in publications, newsletters, anddigests. http://www.cal.org/ericcll. Center for Applied Linguistics, a contract and grant firm, has as primary objective the improvement of theteaching of English as a second or foreign language. http://www.cal.or . The Internet TESL Journal is a monthly Internet magazine for teachers of English as a Second Language thatcontains articles, research papers, lesson plans, classroom handouts, teaching ideas, and links.http://www.aitech.ac.jp/-iteslj/. National Clearinghouse for ESL Literacy Education (NCLE) is the only national clearinghouse focusing on adultand adolescent literacy education. It offers online access to articles, books, newsletters, and bibliographies onliteracy. http://www.cal.or nde. The light at the end of the tunnel Throughout this exploration of the field of ESL two points stand out. First, while ideally all our ESL studentswould move through the four stages discussed above in a manner easily recognizable to their teachers, thetruth of the matter is that they do not. While indicators presented here do indeed identify behaviors and abilitiesinherent in each stage, students carry individual personality factors that make their involvement with the processuniquely their own. According to Richard-Amato (1988), students will pass through all of these stages at varyingrates. Additionally, there is no guarantee that each student will pass through each stage smoothly and moveonto the next. Regression to previous stages is not uncommon in cases where the student has tried to leap toofar ahead of their abilities. However, through simple observation, the teacher will be able to identify a student'scurrent level. Second, back to Ands essay-after receiving feedback from her peers and teacher, this is what Ana wrote in thelast paragraph of her essay: Now I know that this class has changed my life because I learned to read books and also learned more frombooks. Before this happened I just read a book for reading. In some classes the teacher would tell me that Ineed to read and I would read. Now I read and I try to understand everything. Perhaps it will take a while before Ana can learn to use rhetorical and syntactic conventions or for her tounderstand that Juliet's line "0 Romeo, Romeo. Wherefore art thou Romeo?" means "Why are you aMontague?" and not "Where are you Romeo?" Yet, the challenges she and her teachers will have to facedwindle when we examine what Ana has to offer and what she has accomplished in such a short time. References REFERENCES References Au, K., &Jordan, C. (1981). Teaching reading to Hawaiian children: Finding a culturally appropriate solution. InH. Trueba, G. Guthrie, &K. Au, (Eds.), Culture and the bilingual classroom (pp. 139-152). Rowley, MA: NewburyHouse. Cazden, C. (1986). Classroom discourse. In M. Wittrock, (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp.432-463). New York: Macmillan. Christensen, L. (2000). Reading writing, and rising up. Milwaukee, WI: Rethinking Schools. Cisneros, S. (1989). The house on Mango Street. New York: Vintage. Collie, J., &Slater, S. (1987). Literature in the language classroom. Los Angeles: UCLA Center for AcademicInterinstitutional Programs. References Collier, V., &Thomas, W.P. (1989). How quickly can immigrants become proficient in school English? Journal ofEducational Issues of Language Minority Students, 5, 26-38.

Cummins, J. (1989). Empowering minority students. Sacramento, CA: California Association for BilingualEducation. Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Ernst, G. (1993). A multicultural curriculum for the 21st century. In C.G. Hass &F.W. Parkay (Eds.), Curriculumplanning (6th ed., pp. 84-90). Boston: Allyn &Bacon. Ernst, G. (1994a). Talking circle: Conversation and negotiation in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 28,293-322. References Ernst, G. ( 994b). Beyond language: The many dimensions of an ESL program. Anthropology &EducationQuarterly, 25, 317-335. Ernst, G., Castle, M., &Frostad, L. (1992). Teaching in multilingual/multicultural settings: Strategies forsupporting second-language learners. Curriculum in Context, 20(2), 13-15. Ernst-Slavit, G. (1998). Different words, different worlds: Language use, power, and authorized language in abilingual classroom. Linguistics and Education, 9(1) 25-47. Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum. Front, S. (1990). Never say Macbeth. New York: Doubleday. Goodman, K. (1982). Acquiring literacy is natural:Who skilled cock robin? In F. Gollasch (Ed.), Language &literacy: Selected writings of Kenneth S. Goodman(Vol. 2, pp. 243-249). Boston: Routledge &Kegan Paul. References Heath, S. (1983). Ways with words. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, T.D., &Louis, D.R. (1987). Literacy through literature. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Khols, L.R. (1984). Survival kit for overseas living. Yarmouth, England: Intercultural Press. References Krashen, S. (1992). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. New York: Pergamon. Krashen, S., &Biber, D. (1988). On course: Bilingual education's success in California. Sacramento, CA:California Association of Bilingual Education. Maloney, C. (2001). Student voices and visions. Unpublished Master's thesis, Washington State University,Vancouver. Morrison, T. (2000). The bluest eye. New York: Dutton/Plume. Philips, S. (1983). The invisible culture. New York: Longman. References Ramirez, J., Yuen, S., &Ramey, D. (1991). Longitudinal study of structured English immersion strategy, early-exit and late-exit transitional bilingual education programs for language-minority children. San Mateo, CA:Aguirre International. Richard-Amato, P. (1988). Making it happen. White Plains, NY: Longman. Sasser, L. (1992). Teaching literature to language minority students. In P. Richard-Amato &C.E. Snow (Eds.),The multicultural classroom (pp. 300-315). White Plains, NY: Longman. Scarcella, R. (1990). Teaching language minority students in the multicultural classroom. White Plains. NY:Longman. References Shakespeare, W. (1980). Julius Caesar. New York: Royal Composing Room. Steinbeck, J. (1939). The grapes of wrath. Garden City, NY: Sun Dial Press. Strang, W., Winglee, M., &Stunkard, J. (1993). Characteristics of secondary-school-age language minority andlimited English proficient youth. Final analytic report. Washington, DC: Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Language Affairs. Townsend, J., &Fu, D. (2001). Paw's story: A Laotian refugee's lonely entry into American literacy. Journal ofAdolescent e'r Adult Literacy, 45, 104-114.

References Vacca, R., &Vacca, J. (1999). Content area reading. New York: Longman. Wells, G. (1986). The meaning makers: Children learning language and using language to learn. Portsmouth,NH: Heinemann. Zigo, D. (2001). From familiar worlds to possible worlds: Using narrative theory to support struggling readers'engagements with texts. Journal of Adolescent &Adult Literacy, 45, 62-70. Zwick, E. (Producer), Madden, J. (Director), Norman, M., &Stoppard, T. (Writers). (1998). Shakespeare in love[Motion picture]. Los Angeles: Miramax. AuthorAffiliation Gisela Ernst-Slavit, Monica Moore, Carol Maloney AuthorAffiliation Ernst-Slavit teaches at Washington State University Vancouver (14204 NE Salmon Creek Avenue, Vancouver,WA 8686, USA). She may he contacted by e-mail at gepnst@wsu.edu. Moore is an ESL specialist with thePullman School district in Pullman, Washington. Maloney coordinates the Bilingual ESL Support TrainingProject at Washington State University, Vancouver. Subject: Educators; Literature; English as a second language; ESL; Language; Publication title: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy Volume: 46 Issue: 2 Pages: 116-128 Number of pages: 13 Publication year: 2002 Publication date: Oct 2002 Year: 2002 Publisher: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Place of publication: Newark Country of publication: United Kingdom Publication subject: Linguistics, Education ISSN: 10813004 Source type: Scholarly Journals Language of publication: English Document type: Feature ProQuest document ID: 216915301 Document URL:http://search.proquest.com.ezaccess.library.uitm.edu.my/docview/216915301?accountid=42518 Copyright: Copyright International Reading Association Oct 2002 Last updated: 2012-04-18 Database: ProQuest Education Journals,Arts & Humanities Full Text

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